Mali (country)
I INTRODUCTION
Mali (country), landlocked country in northwestern Africa. Desert covers much of Mali, and the country is thinly populated. The southern part of the country is well watered by the Niger River, and most of Mali’s people live in valleys along the Niger or the Sénégal rivers. The people in this largely rural country live primarily by farming and fishing. Drought is a recurrent problem, often bringing famine with it. The largest city is Bamako, Mali’s capital, which has about 1 million people.
Although Bamako is the capital, the town of Tombouctou, or Timbuktu, is far more famous. Founded in the 11th century, this trading post on the southern edge of the Sahara was celebrated for centuries for its splendor. Camel caravans, carrying gold and ivory, passed through it. So did slaves. Tombouctou linked the rest of West Africa with the Mediterranean Sea to the north. In time, to Westerners it came to stand for all that was remote, mysterious, and unimaginable.
From the 5th century through the 19th century, Mali was the core of a series of West African empires that sought control of Tombouctou’s lucrative caravan routes and the gold to its south. In the late 19th century Mali became a colony of France. Under French rule the territory was known as the French Sudan. In 1960 Mali gained independence, taking the name of one of the medieval empires that had formed in the region. Mali has struggled economically since independence. In 2007 the United Nations Development Program ranked Mali 175th out of 178 countries on the human development index, a measure of poverty, literacy, life expectancy, and other criteria of a nation’s well-being. The World Bank had previously classified Mali as one of the poorest countries in the world.
French remains the official language of Mali, and Islam is by far the major religion. However, the people of Mali belong to a number of ethnic groups and speak a variety of African languages.
II LAND AND RESOURCES
Most of Mali consists of low plains broken occasionally by rocky hills. The country has three natural regions. The southern region is a tropical grassland, or savanna, with occasional scattered trees. The central region is a semiarid belt known as the Sahel. The vegetation here consists of thorny plants and shrubs. The northern region lies within the Sahara, a vast desert that extends over northern Africa.
Mali has two major rivers, the Niger and the Sénégal. Both of them flow through the southern part of the country. The Niger turns east in the Sahel and cuts a large arc through the region. Between the town of Mopti, where the Bani River flows into the Niger, and the city of Tombouktou is a large inland delta with river channels and many lakes. The Sénégal and its tributaries flow northward in the extreme west of Mali. High ground is found in the southwest, where sandstone plateaus ring the plains of the Niger and Bani river basins.
In the southeast are the Hombori Mountains, the highest peaks in Mali. Hombori Tondo, the highest point, rises to 1,155 m (3,789 ft) above sea level. The Bambouk and Mandingue mountains are in the southwest.
Mali is bounded by Algeria on the north; by Niger on the east; by Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, and Guinea on the south; and by Senegal and Mauritania on the west. The area of the country is 1,240,192 sq km (478,841 sq mi), making it the largest country in West Africa.
A Climate
The climate of the parts of Mali not in the Sahara is hot and dry with average temperatures ranging from about 24° to 32°C (about 75° to 90°F) in the south. Temperatures are higher in the north. The hottest weather comes just before the rainy season of June to September. Annual rainfall declines from about 1,400 mm (about 55 in) in the south to some 1,120 mm (some 44 in) at Bamako and less than 127 mm (5 in) in the Sahara of the north. Periodic droughts cause considerable hardship in this largely agricultural country. Because of the short rainy season, water shortage is a major problem.
B Natural Resources
Mali is a predominantly agricultural country. The country’s most valuable resource is the Niger River, which abounds in fish; its waters are used for irrigation. Mali’s mineral resources include gold, salt, phosphate rock, iron ore, diamonds, and uranium. Gold is the most important mineral being mined.
C Plants and Animals
In the southern Saharan zone of Mali are found mimosa and gum trees; in the central region, thorny plants; and in the south, kapok, baobab, and shea trees. Animals include cheetah, oryx, gazelle, warthog, lion, leopard, antelope, and jackal.
D Environmental Issues
Mali’s environment suffers from an ongoing drought that has lasted for decades. Despite the drought, most of the population depends on agriculture for its livelihood. Traditional fuels, particularly wood and charcoal, provide the bulk of all energy used in the country. Drought, deforestation, and increased farming of marginal lands have caused soil degradation and dramatic desertification in Mali, and the Sahara has expanded southward at an alarming rate. The drought and loss of habitat, combined with poaching of threatened species, has helped drive animal species to the brink of extinction.
The country also suffers from water pollution due to poor sanitation. Only a small percentage of all Malians have access to adequate sanitation. As a result, water from rivers and wells is often contaminated with bacteria, and much of the population lacks access to safe drinking water.
The government of Mali has protected some areas as natural parks or preserves. It has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, and ozone layer protection.
III PEOPLE
Many different ethnic groups live in Mali. About half of Mali’s people speak related Mande languages. The Bambara are the largest Mande-speaking group and make up about a quarter of Mali’s population. They are descended from the people who founded the Mali Empire in western Africa. Today, they live along the Niger River. According to the 1987 census, Mali had 7,696,348 people. The 2008 estimated population was 12,324,029.
Mali’s other major ethnic groups, besides the Bambara, are the Dogon, Fulani, Mandinka (also known as Mandingo or Malinke), Senufo, Songhai, Soninke, and Tuareg. The Dogon and Senufo are cliff-dwelling people who live in south-central Mali. The Mandinka, like the Bambara, are Mande-speaking and live mainly by farming and fishing. The Songhai are farmers in southeastern Mali, and the Soninke are mainly traders in the northwestern region. The Fulani have traditionally been cattle herders; they speak a language called Fulfulde. Nomadic Tuaregs and other Berbers roam the Sahel and parts of the Sahara. The Tuaregs have kept Berber as their language.
Islam is the religion of about 80 percent of Mali’s population. Most of the remainder follow traditional African religions. Less than 2 percent of the people are Christians. French is the official language of the country, but African languages, such as Bambara and Songhai, are widely spoken.
A Principal Cities
The largest city in Mali is Bamako (population, 2003 estimate, 1,264,000), the capital. Bamako is situated on the Niger River, in southwestern Mali. A large market fills the center of the city. Other cities include Ségou (107,000); Sikasso (90,000); Mopti (86,000); Gao (63,000), and Kayes (62,000). Ségou and Mopti, both located on the Niger, are important fishing centers. The port city of Mopti is at the point where the Bani River joins the Niger.
Djenné is a town of mud brick houses and a magnificent mosque, also built of mud brick. Although the current mosque dates from the early 20th century, it is based on the original 13th-century design. The mosque at Djenné has been designated a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.
Tombouctou was important for centuries as a trading post on the caravan routes that linked West Africa with the Mediterranean. Because of its situation in the African interior, near the southern edge of the Sahara, Tombouctou came to stand for everything distant and unreachable to Western people. Tombouctou is now a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the most popular tourist destination in Mali.
B Education
Education is free and officially compulsory between the ages of 7 and 16. However, only 58 percent of Malian children of primary school age attended schools in 2002–2003. Only 57 percent of men and 43 percent of women in Mali are literate. Bamako has colleges of administration, medicine, law and economics, education, and engineering.
C Art and Music
West Africa is the home of many of the sculptural traditions for which African art has become internationally known. Among these are the carvings of the Dogon and Bambara of Mali. Terra cotta sculptures have been uncovered from a large burial site at Djenné. These sculptures include images of people on horseback and standing and seated figures of both men and women, many with elaborate jewelry and decorative marks on the skin made by scarring. Since most of these sculptures were unearthed in the course of unauthorized digging, little is known about their context or original use.
Djenné is also known today for its immense mud-built Friday Mosque. Built in 1906-1907, it is the third of a series of grand mosques on this site dating back to the 13th century, and one of the most impressive achievements of African architecture.
Although Islam has been a constant presence in Mali for many centuries, many of the local peoples outside the towns resisted conversion, at least until recently. The Dogon fled to the isolated Bandiagara cliffs in south-central Mali sometime between the 10th and 13th centuries rather than convert to Islam. There they have held on to their ancient traditions, including masked religious dances and figural sculpture. A number of figures, together with fragments of textiles and other objects dating from the 11th century, have been found in burial caves above Dogon villages and are attributed by some scholars to a people known as the Tellem.
The Bambara live in the countryside around the Malian capital Bamako. Among their numerous art forms are large wooden sculptures, mostly of women, used in the initiation and annual ceremonies of associations called Jo and Gwan. Elegant carved wooden antelope headdresses, called chi wara, were used in dances by associations that honored the strongest farmers. The Bambara are also noted for their bogolanfini cloth, made by a unique method in which patterns are outlined in a dark mud dye on locally woven narrow-strip cloth.
The music of Mali, which stands at the cultural crossroads of North Africa and Sub-Saharan Africa, merges Islamic influences of the north with the rhythmic complexity of music to the south. For thousands of years, professional musicians called griots played an important role as historians in the kingdoms that developed in Mali. Among the Mande people, professional bards still recount the histories of powerful lineages and offer counsel to contemporary rulers. Perhaps because of a strong female griot tradition, women have attained more success in popular music in Mali than in any other African country.
Contemporary musicians such as Salif Keita of Mali carry on the griot tradition. Keita is descended from 13th-century Malian ruler Sundiata Keita, and his music is suffused with the ancient traditions of the West African griots, as seen in his song “Mandjou,” written in praise of Guinean president Ahmed Sékou Touré. The melodic inflections of his singing also show the Malian inheritance of Islamic music, as well as the increasing influence of jazz and rock music.
Malian guitarist Ali Farka Touré comes from the village of Niafounké, where life centers around the Niger River, and he sings predominantly traditional songs about village life. His adaptation to the guitar of West African vocal and instrumental music shows striking similarities to the early development of African American blues. He has toured internationally and collaborated on recordings with numerous Western musicians.
Drums are important in West African music, although many other types of percussion instruments are used as well. The West African hourglass-shaped tension drum is sometimes called a talking drum because it can be used to imitate the pitch contours of speech. The balo (or balaphon) is a xylophone constructed of a frame with 17-19 keys, each suspended over a hollowed-out gourd resonator, tuned to a seven-note scale. Found throughout the Mande cultures of West Africa, it is played only by male griots, usually as an accompaniment to poetry that is sung.
IV ECONOMY
Mali is one of the poorer African countries. The economy’s largest sector is agriculture. Drought has hampered the country’s economic development, as have inadequate transportation facilities, especially rail and road links to the sea. The Niger River remains a major transportation route within Mali. Most of Mali’s energy comes from hydroelectric power but is insufficient to meet the country’s needs.
A Agriculture and Fishing
The cultivation of food crops occupies 86 percent of the economically active population of Mali. Agriculture also contributes more to the gross domestic product than any other sector. Crops grown in Mali depend almost entirely on irrigation or flooding from the Niger River and its tributaries. The main crops are millet, rice, sorghum, corn, and sugarcane. Livestock raising, principally in the north, also makes a significant contribution to the food supply. Livestock are also exported. The country has millions of cattle, goats, and sheep, although herds were decimated in a drought of the mid-1980s. Mali is one of the major producers and exporters of cotton in Africa, and 160,000 tons of cotton were harvested in 2006.
Fish from the Niger are important to the diet of the people living along the river. The fishing industry produces a surplus, and these fish are dried and smoked for local use and for export.
B Manufacturing and Mining
Industrial output in Mali is small and mainly based on local raw materials, including the processing of cotton and other crops. Consumer goods for local use are also produced. The manufacturing center is Bamako.
Mineral resources are being surveyed, and gold, salt, marble, and phosphate rock (used for fertilizer) have been exploited. Deposits of other minerals have been reported but are not extracted in significant amounts. They include bauxite, copper, iron ore, manganese, and uranium. Gold is by far the most import mining product.
C Currency, Banking, and Trade
The monetary unit is the CFA franc, consisting of 100 centimes (523 francs equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). The Central Bank of the West African States assumes Mali’s central banking functions.
Most foreign trade operations are in the hands of the state. Principal exports include gold, cotton, livestock, processed foodstuffs, and mangoes. The value of exports in 2001 was $519 million. Imports, typically petroleum products, motor vehicles, food products, machinery, and chemicals, amounted to $1,013 million. Chief purchasers of Mali’s exports are Belgium, China, Spain, France, Côte d’Ivoire, and Germany; leading sources of imports are Côte d’Ivoire, France, the United Kingdom, Belgium, China, Germany, and Spain.
D Transportation and Communications
The Niger is the lifeline of Mali. During the rainy season (June to September) and for a few months afterward, most of the course of the Niger is navigable by larger ships, while canoes and small craft can use the river year-round. The Sénégal River is navigable from Kayes to Saint-Louis, in Senegal. A railroad links Koulikoro, Bamako, and Kayes with the port of Dakar in Senegal. Mali has 18,709 km (11,625 mi) of roads, of which 18 percent are paved. The country’s main road links Bamako with Gao at the edge of the Sahara. An international airport is located near Bamako. Air Mali, the state airline, offers international and domestic service. Telephone, telegraph, and radio services are publicly owned and operated.
V GOVERNMENT
A constitution approved by popular referendum in 1992 established Mali as a multiparty republic with a directly elected president. The president is elected to a five-year term and is limited to two terms in office. This official appoints the prime minister, who selects the other members of the council of ministers. The unicameral National Assembly consists of 147 deputies elected to five-year terms.
Until 1991, Mali was governed under a constitution drawn up in 1974 and made effective, with amendments, in 1979. Elected twice without opposition, President Moussa Traoré ruled as a dictator through the nation’s sole legal political party, the Democratic Union of the Malian People, founded in 1976. After a coup in March 1991, this party was dissolved.
For the purposes of regional government, Mali is divided into eight administrative regions plus the capital district of Bamako. The larger towns have elected mayors and council members.
VI HISTORY
The recorded history of the area now included in Mali goes back to writings, largely Arabic, of about the 4th century ad. Between then and the 19th century, Mali was the core area of the great empires of the western Sudan: Ghana, Mali, and Songhai. Such cities as Djenné, Tombouctou, and Gao became centers of trade, learning, and culture.
A The Early Empires
The kingdom of Ghana originated early in the Christian era and reached its apogee between 950 and 1050. For most of its history it was ruled by Mande-speaking Soninke people. By the 8th century it was known to the Muslim world as “the land of gold.” This metal was traded from the gold fields further south in Ghana proper and from there across the desert by Berber nomads in exchange for salt and other commodities from North Africa. Ghana declined after the 11th century. Its capital at Koumbi Saleh, north of modern Bamako, was captured in 1076 by Berber forces who owed allegiance to the Almoravid dynasty. After the Almoravid invasion many of the peoples of the kingdom of Ghana embraced Islam, but the empire itself disintegrated.
The Mali Empire originated in the 11th century, but its period of greatness began under Sundiata Keita, who ruled from around 1235 to 1255. By this time the empire stretched westward from Gao to Tekrur (in modern Senegal) and had become one of the world’s largest suppliers of gold.
The most famous king of Mali was Mansa Musa, who ruled in the early 14th century. His pilgrimage to Mecca in 1324 with 500 slaves and some 50,000 ounces of gold to distribute along the way startled the Mediterranean world by its splendor. Mansa Musa brought back with him Muslim scholars and architects to enhance the reputation for learning and culture of cities such as Tombouctou and Goa. When he died, he left an empire extending across the southern Sahara and the grasslands fringing the Niger River. The Arab traveler Ibn Battūta, who visited the empire a few years later, found there a rule of law that might well have been envied in medieval Europe.
Mali declined in the later 14th and 15th centuries. Its decline was due less to internal instability than to pressures on its frontiers from the Mossi people in the south, the Wolof and Tekrur in the west, and the desert Tuareg in the north. In the 15th century its role in the area was slowly taken over by the Songhai kingdom of Gao.
The Songhai Empire, whose capital was at Gao, is believed to have begun around the 9th century. For a short time in the 14th century, it formed the easternmost province of Mali. It recovered its independence in 1335 but did not begin to expand until more than a century later, during the reign of King Sunni Ali, from 1464 to 1492. Timbouctou was taken from the Tuareg in 1468, and the whole area of the middle Niger delta was under Songhai control by about 1478. The reign of Sunni Ali was marked by the construction of a canal linking Tombouctou with the Niger. A second canal project had to be abandoned because of Mossi raiders. It would have extended some 400 km (250 mi) into the desert and linked the Niger with the commercial center of Oualâta (Walata, in what is now Mauretania).
After Sunni Ali died one of his leading counselors usurped the throne and was proclaimed Askia Muhammad. He ruled from 1493 to 1528. During his reign Songhai extended its authority eastward to the Hausa states (in what is now northern Nigeria), which were forced to pay tribute, and westward to the borders of Tekrur in Senegal. To the north, various trading centers were wrested from Tuareg control. In the south, however, Songhai arms were less successful, for although the Mossi capital was destroyed the Mossi kingdom was never subjugated.
At the end of the reign of Askia Muhammad, the Songhai were beset by a series of internal struggles for power. As a result of these struggles the empire was weakened and the sultan of Morocco, Ahmad al-Mansur, was encouraged to try to break Songhai power. The Songhai army was finally defeated near Gao in 1591 by Judar Pasha, a Spaniard in the service of the sultan, and the Songhai empire was absorbed into the Moroccan territory of Tombouctou.
B Moroccan and French Rule
The Moroccans, however, never really controlled the sprawling empire. Most of the Moroccan soldiers married local women, and their sons came to constitute a military caste known as the Arma, which selected the pashas (local leaders). The countryside was fleeced by the pashas and army. But by 1780 these authorities were so weak that the area broke up into petty states. Only the Bambara states of Ségou and Kaarta were stable.
In the 19th century unifying tribal movements emerged ender the banner of Islam and the leadership of Umar Tal, a Muslim preacher, and military leader Samory Touré. Umar declared a holy war, armed his followers with guns, and formed a theocratic empire that extended from Tombouctou to the headwaters of the Niger and Sénégal. His son and successor, Ahmadu, was defeated by the French in 1893. South of Umar’s empire, Samory united Mandinke peoples into an Islamic state that provided stiff resistance to French troops as they advanced into the area.
By the 1890s, after the defeat of Ahmadu and Samory, French administration was installed in the area. In 1904 what is now Mali was made part of the French colony of Haut-Sénégal-Niger. In 1920 the name Sudan was restored, and as the French Sudan it was made a constituent territory of French West Africa.
African political activity was banned by the French in Mali until after World War II (1939-1945). Various parties that were then formed eventually merged to form the Sudanese Union, a militantly anticolonial party. It gained strength rapidly during the 1950s. In 1956 France passed a reform that gave autonomy to leaders from within its colonial territories. By the time the reforms took place in 1957, the union was the main party.
In 1958 a referendum was held. Instead of voting to separate itself completely from France, the Sudanese Union accepted the alternative of autonomy within the new French Community as the Sudanese Republic. It then sought to unite several French West African states in a new political federation. But only Senegal and Sudan agreed and in 1959 formed the Federation of Mali.
C Independence
Mali proclaimed its independence in June 1960, with Modibo Keita as president. The federation broke up in September, the former French Sudan retaining the name Mali and Keita remaining president of the new Republic of Mali. Underlying the breakup was a conflict over economic gradualism and radicalism, between a broadly pro-French and a strongly pan-African orientation. Mali undertook the later course. After independence Mali pursued a policy of economic development along socialist lines.
C1 Keita’s Presidency
President Modibo Keita committed the ruling political party, the Sudanese Union, to a policy of consolidating state power for the purpose of modernizing the country. Ideologically, the party was inspired by a combination of Marxist ideas, pride in the country’s political heritage, and a sense of mission derived from Islam. Organizationally, it was both a mass party and an alliance of major regional leaders. It absorbed all organized opposition parties and controlled most voluntary associations, such as labor unions, women’s organizations, youth groups, and veterans’ clubs, leaving no legitimate outside channels for the expression of political dissent. The party and the government had parallel structures.
The new Mali franc, with little foreign-exchange backing, could not be used for international payments. Adding to the country’s financial strain were inefficient state-owned firms, which Keita expanded. By mid-1967 he had to agree to broad French supervision of the economy so Mali could reenter the French franc zone. Opposition to his policies within the Sudanese Union caused Keita to suppress dissent, until he was overthrown in 1968 by a military committee of national liberation.
C2 Military Rule
In 1969 the leader of the military junta, Lieutenant Moussa Traoré, emerged as president and premier. His government modified the economic policies of Keita, but not until 1976 did Traoré allow a political party to form, the Democratic Union of the Malian People. He then blocked the start of its activity for three years.
Traoré’s rule was marked by four coup attempts, numerous cabinet shuffles, and growing unrest among students and unemployed graduates. Searing droughts in the mid-1970s and early 1980s, coupled with low cotton prices and extremely bad economic management, left the Malian people among the world’s poorest. Many leading nations provided aid, but ties were slowly reduced with China and the Soviet Union. As the only candidate for the presidency, Traoré was returned to office in 1979 and 1985.
A border war with Burkina Faso (Upper Volta) was halted by a cease-fire in late 1985. Under pressure from its creditors, Mali restructured its economy in the late 1980s to privatize unprofitable government enterprises. Traoré was overthrown in 1991 by a group of army officers, led by Lieutenant Colonel Amadou Toumani Touré, who pledged to return the country to democratic rule. Swiss authorities later revealed that Traoré had transferred $1 billion to personal bank accounts over the years.
D Recent Developments
A new constitution providing for a multiparty republic was approved in 1992. Alpha Oumar Konaré, leader of the Alliance for Democracy in Mali, became the country’s first democratically elected president later that year. Rioting students opposed to Konaré’s austerity measures damaged numerous government buildings in Bamako in April 1993. An attempted coup by supporters of Traoré collapsed in December of that year.
From 1990 on, strife in the north has become a focus of concern for Mali’s government. After the drought of the 1980s ended, Tuareg who had migrated to Algeria and Libya began to return to West Africa. Fighting broke out between the settled African population and the nomadic Tuareg. At the same time the region became involved in a general rebellion of Tuareg demanding greater autonomy from the governments of Mali, Niger, and Algeria, whose borders cross traditional Tuareg territory.
In 1992 a peace agreement, the Bamako Accord, was reached with the main Tuareg groups. Conflict between the army and smaller Tuareg groups continued into 1995. In 1996 more than 2,000 Tuareg former rebels were integrated into the regular army. Thousands of Malian Tuareg refugees were repatriated from Niger.
In addition to a troubled economy and the Tuareg rebellion, Konaré also had to deal with the trials of former president Moussa Traoré. In 1993 Traoré was sentenced to death for his role in the deaths of protesters a few years earlier. This sentence was commuted to life imprisonment by Konaré, but in 1998, Traoré, his wife Mariam Cissoko, and his brother-in-law Abraham Cissoko, went on trial for embezzlement. All three were sentenced to death in 1999, but the death sentences were commuted in 1999 to life imprisonment and hard labor. Before leaving office in 2002, Konaré announced that he had pardoned them.
In the meantime, democracy was having a hard time. The constitutional court declared that legislative elections held in 1997 were invalid because of fraud and lack of organization. Opposition groups urged that presidential elections scheduled for May be postponed. The elections were held nonetheless, although all but one of the opposition groups boycotted them. Konaré was elected to a second five-year term. Former U.S. president Jimmy Carter visited Mali in 1998 to mediate between the government and the opposition. Despite Carter’s recommendation, the opposition continued to call for Konaré’s resignation. For the 2002 presidential election, 24 candidates registered. Touré, the leader of the 1991 coup, was elected president, after two rounds of voting.
Touré was reelected in 2007. The constitutional court declared that he won the first round of voting with more than 70 percent of the vote, more than enough to avoid a runoff.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Friday, August 6, 2010
MALDIVES
Maldives
I INTRODUCTION
Maldives (formerly Maldive Islands), island republic in southern Asia, located in the northern Indian Ocean, southwest of the southern tip of India. Maldives is made up of a chain of 1,190 small coral islands that are grouped into clusters of atolls. It has a total area of 298 sq km (115 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Maldives is Male (population, 2003, 83,000).
II LAND AND RESOURCES
The islands are low-lying and have only small tracts of arable land. Vegetation is dominated by coconut palms and breadfruit trees. The climate is tropical and humid. The average annual temperature is 26.7° C (80° F), with little seasonal variation. The average annual precipitation is 1,500 mm (60 in), most of which falls between May and November. The principal natural resource is the marine life of the surrounding seas.
III POPULATION
The population of Maldives (2008 estimate) is 379,174, yielding an average population density of 1,264 persons per sq km (3,273 per sq mi). The most populous atolls are Male, the capital and principal commercial center; Suvadiva; and Tiladummati. The people are ethnically heterogeneous, incorporating Indian, Sinhalese, Arabian, and African elements. Islam is the state religion, and nearly all the people are Sunni Muslims. The language is Divehi, an Indo-European tongue related to Sinhalese.
IV ECONOMY AND GOVERNMENT
The Maldivian economy is dominated by fishing, and the total catch in 2005 was 185,980 metric tons. The most valuable species is tuna; corals and shells are also taken. Coconuts are the principal agricultural product; most food must be imported. Industrial activity is largely limited to fish processing and garment manufacturing. The tourist industry is growing; in 2006 some 602,000 tourists visited Maldives, adding $434 million to the economy. The national currency is the rufiyaa which is made up of 100 laari (12.80 rufiyaa equal U.S.$1; 2006 average).
Maldives is a republic governed under a constitution. The country’s first constitution, promulgated in 1968, was replaced by a new constitution in 1998. Executive power is vested in a president, who serves a five-year term. Nominations for president are submitted to the Majlis, or Citizens' Council, which elects a single candidate. This candidate is then submitted to the people in a referendum in which all adults may vote. To become president, the candidate must win at least a 51-percent majority. The Majlis, a unicameral legislative body, consists of 40 members directly elected from the 20 administrative atolls, 2 members elected from Male, and 8 representatives appointed by the president. The president appoints a cabinet that is responsible to the Majlis.
V HISTORY
The islands were settled by Buddhist peoples from southern Asia. Islam was introduced in the 12th century. The Portuguese traded at Male in the latter half of the 15th century. Although the islands were ruled by a local sultan, European influence was established over the area, first by the Dutch in the 17th century and later by the British. In 1887 the Maldives Islands formally became a British protectorate. In 1965 the Maldives achieved independence as a sultanate, and in 1968 the people voted to establish a republic. In 1988, Indian troops were called in to foil a coup attempt by Tamil mercenaries. In 1998 the country adopted a new constitution.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
I INTRODUCTION
Maldives (formerly Maldive Islands), island republic in southern Asia, located in the northern Indian Ocean, southwest of the southern tip of India. Maldives is made up of a chain of 1,190 small coral islands that are grouped into clusters of atolls. It has a total area of 298 sq km (115 sq mi). The capital and largest city of Maldives is Male (population, 2003, 83,000).
II LAND AND RESOURCES
The islands are low-lying and have only small tracts of arable land. Vegetation is dominated by coconut palms and breadfruit trees. The climate is tropical and humid. The average annual temperature is 26.7° C (80° F), with little seasonal variation. The average annual precipitation is 1,500 mm (60 in), most of which falls between May and November. The principal natural resource is the marine life of the surrounding seas.
III POPULATION
The population of Maldives (2008 estimate) is 379,174, yielding an average population density of 1,264 persons per sq km (3,273 per sq mi). The most populous atolls are Male, the capital and principal commercial center; Suvadiva; and Tiladummati. The people are ethnically heterogeneous, incorporating Indian, Sinhalese, Arabian, and African elements. Islam is the state religion, and nearly all the people are Sunni Muslims. The language is Divehi, an Indo-European tongue related to Sinhalese.
IV ECONOMY AND GOVERNMENT
The Maldivian economy is dominated by fishing, and the total catch in 2005 was 185,980 metric tons. The most valuable species is tuna; corals and shells are also taken. Coconuts are the principal agricultural product; most food must be imported. Industrial activity is largely limited to fish processing and garment manufacturing. The tourist industry is growing; in 2006 some 602,000 tourists visited Maldives, adding $434 million to the economy. The national currency is the rufiyaa which is made up of 100 laari (12.80 rufiyaa equal U.S.$1; 2006 average).
Maldives is a republic governed under a constitution. The country’s first constitution, promulgated in 1968, was replaced by a new constitution in 1998. Executive power is vested in a president, who serves a five-year term. Nominations for president are submitted to the Majlis, or Citizens' Council, which elects a single candidate. This candidate is then submitted to the people in a referendum in which all adults may vote. To become president, the candidate must win at least a 51-percent majority. The Majlis, a unicameral legislative body, consists of 40 members directly elected from the 20 administrative atolls, 2 members elected from Male, and 8 representatives appointed by the president. The president appoints a cabinet that is responsible to the Majlis.
V HISTORY
The islands were settled by Buddhist peoples from southern Asia. Islam was introduced in the 12th century. The Portuguese traded at Male in the latter half of the 15th century. Although the islands were ruled by a local sultan, European influence was established over the area, first by the Dutch in the 17th century and later by the British. In 1887 the Maldives Islands formally became a British protectorate. In 1965 the Maldives achieved independence as a sultanate, and in 1968 the people voted to establish a republic. In 1988, Indian troops were called in to foil a coup attempt by Tamil mercenaries. In 1998 the country adopted a new constitution.
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MALAYSIA
Malaysia
I INTRODUCTION
Malaysia, constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia on the South China Sea. Malaysia is divided into two regions, known as West Malaysia and East Malaysia. West Malaysia, also known as Peninsular Malaysia, consists of the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula and nearby islands. Thailand borders West Malaysia on the north, and Singapore lies off the southern coastal tip. East Malaysia occupies the northern section of Borneo Island, as well as offshore islands. East Malaysia shares Borneo with Brunei, which lies on a small section of the northern coast, and with the Kalimantan region of Indonesia, which lies to the south. Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and 3 federal territories. The city of Kuala Lumpur, coextensive with the federal territory of the same name, is the capital and largest city. Located near Kuala Lumpur is the administrative center of the federal government, Putrajaya, which also makes up a federal territory.
From the late 18th to the early 19th century, Britain gradually gained control of Peninsular Malaysia, and most of northern Borneo fell into private British hands. During the same period, the largely Malay population became diversified, as ethnic Chinese and Indians immigrated to work in Malaysia’s tin and rubber industries. Since independence in 1957, ethnic tensions, especially between Chinese and Malays, have dominated political and economic issues. Despite the tensions, however, Malaysia has experienced rapid economic growth, particularly in the manufacturing sector, and economists include the country among Asia’s newly industrialized economies (NIEs).
II LAND AND RESOURCES
East and West Malaysia are separated by about 640 km (about 400 mi) of the South China Sea, and together comprise an area of 329,758 sq km (127,320 sq mi), with West Malaysia accounting for about 60 percent of this total. Peninsular Malaysia extends more than 800 km (500 mi) from north to south and spans 330 km (205 mi) at its widest point. In the north lies the Main Range, a mountainous spine that separates the east and west coastal plains. The Main Range rises to a maximum elevation of 2,187 m (7,175 ft) at Mount Tahan, West Malaysia’s highest point. The southern portion of the peninsula is relatively flat. Numerous small islands lie off the coast, including Langkaw (Pulau Langkawi) and Pinang off the northwest coast, and Tioman, a popular tourist destination off the southeast coast.
The states of Sarawak and Sabah (on Borneo), and the federal territory of Labuan (an island off the coast of Sabah) make up East Malaysia. On Borneo, East Malaysia has a maximum width of 275 km (171 mi) and extends about 1,130 km (about 700 mi) in length. Its jagged coastline is about 2,250 km (about 1,400 mi) long. Sarawak, occupying the southwestern section of East Malaysia, consists of swampy lowlands along the coast rising to high mountains in the interior, especially in the east. Sabah, in the northeast, has extensive lowlands in its eastern section. Along Borneo’s northern coast in Sabah is the Crocker Range, which rises to a maximum elevation of 4,101 m (13,455 ft) at Mount Kinabalu, the highest peak in Malaysia. Several small islands, most notably Labuan and Banggi, lie off the coast of Sabah.
A Rivers and Lakes
East Malaysia contains the country’s two longest rivers: the Rajang in Sarawak and the Kinabatangan in Sabah. They are each 560 km (350 mi) long and navigable for part of their courses. Also important is the 400-km (250-mi) long Baram River in Sarawak. Peninsular Malaysia’s longest rivers include the Pahang (470 km/290 mi long), the Kelantan (about 400 km/250 mi long), and the Perak (about 240 km/150 mi long), all of which are navigable for most of their courses. Most of Malaysia’s rivers have steep descents, especially those in Sarawak. Dam projects created Malaysia’s largest lakes, Lake Kenyir and Lake Temengor, both located in West Malaysia. Lake Kenyir is a popular tourist destination and borders on the Taman Negara National Park, the largest national park in Peninsular Malaysia. The country’s largest natural lake is Lake Bera, also in West Malaysia.
B Plant and Animal Life
Malaysia has abundant plant life in its coastal mangrove forests; in lowland tropical forests; and, at elevations over 1,200 m (3,900 ft), in mossy or montane oak forests. The country harbors an estimated 8,000 species of flowering plants, including 2,500 species of trees. The lowland forests contain some of the most important commercial timber species, including mahogany and teak. These trees often attain heights of more than 50 m (160 ft) and grow to about 3 m (about 10 ft) in circumference. Where forested areas are cleared, the ground is rapidly taken over by a coarse grass called Imperata cylindrica, an invasive weed that displaces other vegetation. The world’s largest flower, the giant rafflesia (also known as corpse lily), grows in East Malaysia. Sabah contains the largest of the pitcher plants, the Nepenthes rajah, which can hold up to 2 liters (0.5 gallon) of water. Approximately one-quarter of the land in Malaysia is cultivated or used for plantation agriculture.
Like other tropical forests, Malaysia’s forests include an enormous variety of animal life. Large mammals include Asian elephants; tigers; sun bears; tapirs; several species of deer; and rhinoceroses, which are endangered. Malaysia’s primates include the endangered orangutans and three species of protected gibbons. Other animals include more than 500 known species of birds; more than 100 species of snakes, including king cobras and pythons; and many amphibians and reptiles, including crocodiles and 80 species of lizards. Malaysia is renowned for its huge insect population, including many species of butterflies and moths. Some insects, including mosquitoes, hornets, red ants, scorpions, and certain spiders, can be harmful to people.
C Natural Resources
Malaysia has several important natural resources. Forests cover 63.4 percent of the land; Sabah and Sarawak are especially known for their tropical forests. West Malaysia has large deposits of tin and numerous rubber trees. Other minerals include copper and uranium. However, the country’s most important natural resources—and its most valuable exports—are oil and natural gas, found in onshore and offshore deposits, respectively. Petroleum reserves were estimated at 4 billion barrels in 2007, and natural gas reserves were about 2 trillion cubic meters (75 trillion cubic feet).
D Climate
Except in the highlands, Malaysia’s climate is hot and humid year round. Average daily temperatures vary from about 20° to 30°C (about 70° to 90°F). Average annual rainfall for the peninsula is about 2,500 mm (about 100 in). The exposed northern slopes of Sarawak and Sabah receive as much as 5,080 mm (200 in) of rain per year.
E Environmental Issues
Malaysia is home to some of the world’s most important tropical wildlife habitats, including rich rain forests and at least ten distinct types of wetlands. Malaysia has more than 2,000 plant and animal species found nowhere else on Earth. However, many species are threatened or endangered due to loss of habitat and poaching (illegal hunting).
Deforestation poses the main threat to Malaysia’s environment. Forests are cleared at an annual rate of 0.44 percent (1990–2005 average), mainly for the commercial export of tropical hardwoods and wood products. The logging of upland forests, which are particularly vulnerable, has led to slope erosion, siltation of rivers and streams, soil degradation, loss of wildlife habitat, and an increase in the amount of flood-prone areas. Many wetlands have also been disturbed or destroyed. The rate of deforestation is unsustainable in the long term, however, and the government’s forestry policies have drawn international and domestic criticism. In response, the government has somewhat reduced the extent of permissible logging areas and instituted reforestation programs. The government has also protected some areas as national parks. Kinabalu National Park, established in 1964 in Sabah, protects the area around Mount Kinabalu. The largest park of West Malaysia is Taman Negara National Park, covering more than 4,300 sq km (more than 1,600 sq mi) of dense tropical rain forest.
Urbanization and industrialization have caused problems with solid-waste management and water pollution, affecting many of the country’s coastal waters and rivers. Inshore and offshore fisheries resources are rapidly being depleted. The government of Malaysia is seeking to mitigate these problems through various means, including the Environmental Quality Act (1974) and the Fisheries Act (1985), but implementation and enforcement are often hampered by lack of resources.
III THE PEOPLE OF MALAYSIA
Malaysia’s estimated 2008 population was 25,259,428. The population growth rate was 1.74 percent in 2008. The overall population density is 77 persons per sq km (199 per sq mi), but the population is unevenly distributed; West Malaysia has a population density about twice the national average. Some 65 percent of Malaysia’s population is urban. Like most developing nations, Malaysia has experienced high rural-to-urban migration rates since the 1950s. Urban unemployment is very low in Malaysia, and this contributes to the growth. The labor shortage for low-skill jobs attracts many immigrants, particularly from Indonesia, the Philippines, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Skilled workers are recruited primarily from India, Japan, and China.
In addition to Malaysia’s largest city, Kuala Lumpur, large cities in the country include Ipoh, Johor Baharu, Petaling Jaya, Kelang, Kuala Terengganu, and George Town (formerly Pinang). Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya, and Kelang are part of the Kelang Valley conurbation, which is Malaysia’s largest urban region. Most of the conurbation is located in the state of Selangor, which surrounds the Kuala Lumpur federal territory. Selangor is Malaysia’s most populated state, followed by Johor and Sabah. From 1991 to 2000, Selangor had an annual population growth rate of about 6 percent—the highest of any Malaysian state. The growth was largely due to employment opportunities in the Kelang Valley conurbation and to the sprawl of the Kuala Lumpur greater metropolitan area beyond the borders of the federal territory. Growth of the metropolitan area has been spurred since the late 1990s by the construction of a new administrative center of the federal government, Putrajaya, about 40 km (about 25 mi) south of Kuala Lumpur, and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, located south of Putrajaya.
A Ethnic Groups and Languages
Ethnic Malays and other indigenous peoples, sometimes known as Malayan peoples, comprised 65 percent of Malaysia’s population at the 2000 census. In Malaysia they are called bumiputera (sons of the soil). Other groups include ethnic Chinese, who constituted 26 percent of the population, and ethnic Indians, who made up about 8 percent. Small numbers of Indonesians, Thai, Europeans, and Australians also live in Malaysia. In West Malaysia ethnic Malays make up a majority of the population. In East Malaysia, however, numerous Dayak ethnic groups constitute a sizable population, as do Chinese, especially in Sarawak. The national language is Bahasa Malaysia (also known simply as Malay), a Malay language of the Austronesian language family. English, Chinese, and Tamil (a Dravidian language of southern India) are also widely spoken.
B Religion
Islam is the country’s official religion, although the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. More than half the people of Malaysia are Muslims, including nearly all ethnic Malays. Most Chinese are Buddhists, although Confucianism and Daoism (Taoism) are also important. Most Indians practice Hinduism. In Sabah and Sarawak many of the indigenous peoples are Christians, although traditional beliefs are also widely practiced.
C Education
In Malaysia education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 16, and an additional two years of free education are optional. In 2002–2003, virtually all Malaysian children attended primary school. Parents may choose between Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, or Tamil as the language of instruction for their primary school children. Bahasa Malaysia is the primary language of instruction in all secondary schools, although continued learning in Chinese and Tamil is available and English is a compulsory second language. Enrollment in secondary education was 70 percent in 2002–2003. Malaysia has a number of institutions of higher education, including nine universities. Universities include the National University, in Bangi; the University of Technology, in Johor Baharu; and the University of Malaya, in Kuala Lumpur.
D Way of Life
The people of Malaysia have a variety of lifestyles. Important among ethnic Malays are respect and obedience toward parents and elders, community self-help, and, in rural areas, the maintenance of law and order through cooperation and respect for the village headman. Marriages, burial customs, and other aspects of Malay life conform to Islamic law. In general, religion plays a major role in each group’s way of life. Wedding ceremonies of ethnic Indians, for example, follow Hindu traditions, whereby the wedding takes place on a day and hour prescribed by a Hindu astrologer. Traditional Chinese family structure is patrilineal and patriarchal; as in China, sons are preferred over daughters in order to maintain the family surname through descent. Kinship ties among the extended Chinese family are very strong and carry into the business environment. Because ethnic Chinese own many Malaysian businesses, these ties hinder occupational mobility among Malays.
Rural ways of life differ significantly from urban lifestyles. In East Malaysia, about three-quarters of the population is rural. Many indigenous ethnic groups, including the Iban (Sea Dayaks), Bidayuh (Land Dayaks), and Kadazan, practice shifting cultivation (also known as slash-and-burn agriculture). In this type of agriculture, trees and grasses are burned from an area so a crop may be planted; after several seasons, the land is abandoned and a new area is burned for planting. These groups live mostly in single-family housing units, but many indigenous people in East Malaysia live in longhouses, a traditional dwelling of Borneo.
E Social Issues
Since Malaysia gained independence, there have been significant differences in the social standing of the three main ethnic groups—indigenous bumiputras (mostly Malays), ethnic Chinese, and Indians. Many of these differences are holdovers from the colonial period. While Malays have traditionally predominated in politics and government, ethnic Chinese and Indians have been disproportionately successful in the economy. The incidence of poverty is significantly higher in rural areas, where the majority of bumiputras live. Bumiputras generally work as laborers on estate farms, raise crops on small plots, or practice subsistence agriculture (farming to meet family or village needs rather than for profit). In general, ethnic Chinese have played the major role in both the rural and urban sectors of the economy, and this has been an issue of contention for many bumiputras. In May 1969 ethnic-based tensions erupted into violent riots in Malaysia. In 1970 the government introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) to try to eliminate the relationship between ethnicity and income. The 20-year period of the NEP produced some improvements, including a reduction of people living at or below poverty level, from 52 percent in 1970 to 17 percent in 1990. However, the income gap between groups, especially bumiputras and ethnic Chinese, remained substantial. In 1991 the government introduced the New Development Policy (NDP) as a successor to the NEP, continuing many of the same initiatives but with a stronger emphasis on increasing business ownership among bumiputras. In the early 2000s economic and social differences continued to be a significant social issue in Malaysia.
IV CULTURE
Malaysia reflects different cultural traditions, including those of China, India, the Middle East, Europe, and the entire Malay Archipelago. Early Malay empires absorbed Indian influences, such as Hindu epics and the Sanskrit language. The kingdom of Malacca, centered in the present-day state of Melaka, developed as an Islamic state, or sultanate, in the 1400s. Later, new cultural influences from Europe and China mixed with Hindu and Islamic traditions. A collective but distinctively Malay cultural pattern has emerged out of all these influences, with artistic expressions in literature, music, dance, and art forms.
A Literature
Malaysia’s most important literary work is the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals). Written in the 1500s, this work presents a somewhat romanticized account of the Malacca sultanate. European colonizers on Peninsular Malaysia (the Portuguese in 1511, the Dutch in 1641, and finally the English in the 18th century) greatly affected the local literary style. In print, the vernacular, or spoken language, replaced the classical literary style of Malay, and in 1876 the first Malaysian newspaper used the vernacular.
B Art and Architecture
Malaysian decorative art forms include colorful batik cloth, silverware, pewter items, and woodcarvings. Like other elements of Malaysian culture, its architecture reflects influences from India, China, and Islam. These influences are most pronounced in religious structures. The British introduced colonial architecture and, in buildings such as the old post office and railway station in Kuala Lumpur, the Moorish style. From 1998 to 2003 Malaysia boasted the world’s tallest buildings, the Petronas Towers. Each tower rises 452 m (1,483 ft). The architect, Argentine American Cesar Pelli, found inspiration for the design of the buildings in traditional Malaysian Islamic architecture.
C Music, Dance, and Drama
Hindu, Islamic, and Indonesian forms influenced music in Malaysia. For example, wayang kulit (shadow-puppet theater), was introduced from Java in the 13th century, and today is most commonly found in the state of Kelantan. Malaysian musical instruments include distinctive drums (gendang), of which there are at least 14 types; gongs and other percussion instruments made from native materials such as bamboo (kertuk and pertuang) and coconut shells (raurau); and a variety of wind instruments, including flutes. Ensembles (nobat) and orchestras (gamelan) play these instruments at special occasions. Chinese musical forms, including Chinese opera, were more recently introduced into Malaysia.
D Libraries and Museums
Three of Malaysia’s major museums—the National Museum of Malaysia, in Kuala Lumpur; the Sabah Museum, in Kota Kinabalu; and the Sarawak Museum, in Kuching—exhibit collections of regional ethnographic and archaeological materials. The National Library of Malaysia and the National Archives are in Kuala Lumpur. Each state has its own museum exhibiting local items.
V ECONOMY
The economy of Malaysia once relied principally on the production of raw materials for export, most importantly petroleum, natural rubber, tin, palm oil, and timber. After Malaysia gained independence in 1957, however, the development of the manufacturing sector took priority. From the mid-1970s to mid-1990s Malaysia had one of the world’s fastest-growing economies, mainly due to rapid industrialization. In the late 1980s industry replaced agriculture as the largest contributor to the gross domestic product (GDP). The services sector, especially tourism, also drove growth.
In 1991 the Malaysian government launched the ambitious “Vision 2020” program, which envisions Malaysia attaining the status of a developed nation by 2020. Toward this goal, the government has invested heavily in modernizing the infrastructure of the Kuala Lumpur metropolitan area. The modernization is designed to propel Malaysia into the digital age and position it as a hub for high-technology businesses in Southeast Asia. However, the country’s reliance on exports of manufactured goods, such as computer microchips and other electrical components, has made its economy susceptible to regional and global economic downturns. Malaysia was one of many Asian countries that suffered economic decline during a regional economic crisis in 1997 and 1998. This crisis led to the delay of some infrastructure projects and possibly of the Vision 2020 goal.
The nation’s economy expanded an average of 5.9 percent annually in the period 2006. In 2003 Malaysia’s annual budget included revenues of about $21 billion and expenditures of about $25 billion. The country’s GDP was $150.7 billion in 2006. Industry, including mining and construction, accounted for 50 percent of the GDP; services, 41 percent; and agriculture, forestry, and fishing, 9 percent.
A Labor
In 2006 Malaysia had a labor force of 11.6 million workers. Some 15 percent of Malaysian jobs were in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 30 percent in industry; and 53 percent in services. Unemployment was comparatively low, with only 3.5 percent of the workforce unable to find work in 2004.
B Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
Some 5 percent of Malaysia’s land is under cultivation for field crops and 18 percent is used for plantation agriculture. Malaysia ranks as the world’s leading producer and exporter of palm oil. The country was once the leading producer of natural rubber, but in the early 1990s Thailand and Indonesia surpassed Malaysia after Malaysia began shifting to more profitable crops such as palm oil. Other important export crops are cacao, sugarcane, pepper, coconuts, and pineapples. The principal subsistence crop is rice. Cassava and bananas are also important.
The country is a leading world supplier of tropical hardwoods. Exports of raw timber have declined since the mid-1990s, in part because the government of Malaysia introduced measures to encourage the local production of finished goods, such as plywood and furniture. Most wood processing takes place in West Malaysia, where log exports are banned, while Sarawak provides the bulk of raw timber.
In 2005 Malaysia’s annual fish catch was 1.4 million metric tons, nearly all of it from ocean waters. Aquaculture (the farming of fish and shellfish) has expanded rapidly to help supply the domestic market. However, domestic production of fish has not kept pace with increasing consumption, and Malaysia is an importer of fish products.
C Mining
Production of petroleum and natural gas has increased greatly since the 1970s, and the refining of crude oil is a major industry. In 2004 mineral fuels provided 12 percent of Malaysia’s export revenues. Malaysia’s tin reserves rank among the largest in the world, although production has declined sharply, from about 70,000 metric tons of concentrates in the early 1970s to about 3,000 in 2004. Much of the decline is due to a sharp fall in the world commodity price for the metal. Mining activity also yields bauxite, copper, iron ore, silver, and gold.
D Manufacturing
In 2004 manufactured items accounted for 75 percent of exports by value. Electronic goods constitute most of Malaysia’s manufactured exports. Principal industrial activities are the processing of palm oil, petroleum, timber, rubber, and tin; and the production of electrical and electronic equipment, processed food, textiles, chemicals, building materials, and handicrafts. In addition, Malaysia produces its own automobile, the Proton.
E Services
Among the most important of the service industries is tourism. The government has launched successful international campaigns to promote tourism in Malaysia. In 2006, 17.5 million tourists traveled to Malaysia for short visits from nearby Singapore or other Southeast Asian countries, although a large number arrived from more distant places, including Japan and Taiwan.
F Energy
Malaysia is self-sufficient in energy. In 2003 annual production was 79 billion kilowatt-hours. Some 93 percent of the country’s production came from thermal plants burning fossil fuels (petroleum and natural gas), and 7 percent was from hydroelectric sources.
G Transportation and Communications
The framework of West Malaysia’s system of roads and railroads was laid down during the British colonial period. A main highway in western Peninsular Malaysia extends over 800 km (500 mi) from Singapore to the Thai border in the north. The road system in Sabah and Sarawak is much less developed; a main road runs along Borneo’s northern coast but there are few good interior roads. The state-owned railroad system consists of 1,667 km (1,036 mi) of track, most of which is in West Malaysia and with a short stretch in Sabah. Malaysia Airlines, founded in 1971, offers both domestic and international flights. Other domestic carriers also offer local flights. Malaysia has a number of international airports, including the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, located south of the city at Sepang. Major seaports in West Malaysia are Port Kelang, George Town, and Melaka. Kuching and Labuan are the major seaports serving Sarawak and Sabah, respectively.
The government of Malaysia tightly controls and monitors most public communications. Government censorship, and the expectation of it, imposes restrictions on the news media. Malaysia has 35 daily newspapers publishing in four languages. A government agency, Radio Television Malaysia, controls and monitors radio and television broadcasting. The state-run Radio Malaysia operates six radio networks, and Television Malaysia operates two television networks; two private television networks also exist. The government has made it a policy to not censor the Internet, which as a consequence has become an important alternative source of information for the Malaysian public.
H Foreign Trade
Export trade totaled $127 billion in 2004. Major exports include semiconductors and electrical equipment, palm oil, chemicals, petroleum, machinery appliances and parts, wood and wood products, and textiles. The chief buyers of exports are the United States, Singapore, Japan, China (including Hong Kong), and Thailand. Imports were valued at $104 billion in 2004. Major imports include electrical and electronic products, machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, manufactures of metal, petroleum, and iron and steel products. The leading suppliers of imported goods are Japan, the United States, Singapore, China, Taiwan, and South Korea.
Malaysia is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and is a full participant in the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), established in 1992 with the goal of establishing nearly free trade among member nations. With the formal implementation of AFTA in 2002, member nations were to gradually reduce tariff barriers to 5 percent or less. Malaysia became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.
I Currency and Banking
The Malaysian unit of currency is the ringgit, consisting of 100 sen (3.70 ringgits equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). Malaysia’s central bank and bank of issue is the Bank Negara Malaysia, in Kuala Lumpur. There is a stock exchange in Kuala Lumpur.
VI GOVERNMENT
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a two-house legislature. The government is based on the 1957 constitution of the Federation of Malaya, which was an independent nation from 1957 to 1963 that occupied present-day West Malaysia. The Federation of Malaya joined with Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah to form the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, although Singapore became an independent republic in 1965. All citizens of Malaysia who are at least 21 years old may vote.
A Executive
The head of state is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Paramount Ruler), who is selected by and from nine hereditary sultans, or rulers, and serves a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister, who is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the House of Representatives (the lower house of the legislature) and is appointed by the head of state.
B Legislature
The parliament consists of a House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) with 219 members and a Senate (Dewan Negara) with up to 70 members. Representatives are popularly elected for five-year terms. Senators serve three-year terms, and may serve no more than two terms. Two senators are elected by each of the 13 state legislatures, and the head of state appoints the rest, including senators for the federal territories. Legislative power is divided between the federal and local state legislatures.
C Judiciary
The Federal Court (formerly the Supreme Court) is the highest court. Below this are two High Courts, one serving West Malaysia and the other serving East Malaysia. A Court of Appeal hears appeals from the Federal Court, and the Federal Court hears appeals from the High Courts. Each High Court has a chief judge and several other judges; the Federal Court consists of the chief justice, the president of the Court of Appeal, the two chief judges from the High Courts, and five other judges. The chief justice, chief judges, and other judges from the Federal Court and High Courts are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of the prime minister and the Conference of Rulers, which consists of the nine hereditary rulers and the heads of the other states. Lower courts include the Sessions Courts and the Magistrates’ Courts. Islamic laws apply to Muslims and Muslims may be prosecuted in Islamic courts at the state level.
D Local Government
West Malaysia is divided into the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya and 11 states: Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Pinang, Selangor, and Terengganu. East Malaysia consists of the states of Sabah and Sarawak, and the Federal Territory of Labuan. Each of the 13 states has a titular ruler whose title varies in different states. Effective executive power in the states rests with the chief minister, who heads an executive council, or cabinet. Each state has its own written constitution and a unicameral legislative assembly empowered to legislate on matters not reserved for the federal parliament.
E Political Parties
The leading political party in Malaysia is the United Malays National Organization (UMNO). The UMNO is the dominant party in a coalition called the National Front (Barisan Nasional). Other parties include the Democratic Action Party (DAP), Islamic Party of Malaysia (Parti Islam se Malaysia, or PAS), and People’s Justice Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat, or PKR).
F Social Services
The Ministry of Health operates a comprehensive health-care system. Government hospitals provide care for all who need it. In addition, most large towns and cities have private hospitals that provide sophisticated medical treatment for those who can pay. There is no national comprehensive system of social welfare, although there are programs that protect workers against, for example, sickness, accidents, and arbitrary dismissals. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) carry much of Malaysia’s social welfare burden.
G Defense
In 2004 the Malaysian armed forces included 110,000 active-duty personnel, of which 80,000 were in the army, 15,000 were in the air force, and 15,000 were in the navy. Military service is voluntary. Malaysia’s military plays an apolitical role and is under the complete control of the civilian government.
H International Organizations
Malaysia is a member of most major international organizations, including the United Nations (UN) and many of its member agencies. Other organizations to which Malaysia belongs include the Commonwealth of Nations, an association of mostly former British colonies, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), which promotes solidarity among nations where Islam is an important religion.
VII HISTORY
Humans lived in the area of present-day Malaysia as long as 40,000 years ago. The early history of the area is obscure because there are few local documents and almost no archaeological remains, especially any with inscriptions. According to Chinese sources, however, early contacts were made with China. Traders also spread Hindu influences from India, which affected people’s customs and the rituals of local rulers. Peninsular Malaysia was not unified politically but was split into small kingdoms and subdivided into chiefdoms defined by river valleys. Political rule of Borneo was even more fragmented. Some of the mainland kingdoms may have been subject to a degree of control by larger empires centered in Cambodia or Java, such as Majapahit.
About AD 1400 Parameswara, a Sumatran prince, founded the kingdom of Malacca on the site of present-day Melaka. He was converted to Islam, which traders from India had already brought to the area, and Malacca became a center for the further spread of the Muslim faith. Malacca prospered and expanded its influence into most of the Malay Archipelago, but in 1511 it was conquered by the Portuguese under Afonso de Albuquerque. The Portuguese in Malacca survived constant fighting with neighboring Johor, Aceh in Sumatra, and other states. In 1641, however, Malacca fell to the Dutch, who replaced the Portuguese as the leading European trading power in the region. Like their predecessors, the Dutch were frequently at war with neighboring kingdoms and succeeded in extending their influence to parts of Johor. In this period the northern Malay kingdoms—Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu—were frequently under the influence of Siam (present-day Thailand).
A The Imposition of British Rule
The British became active in the area in the 18th century, partly because they sought trade, but also to check French power in the Indian Ocean. The sultan of Kedah, looking for help against the Siamese, leased the island of Pinang to the English East India Company in 1786, and Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, a company administrator, founded Singapore in 1819. Under the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, Britain secured Malacca from the Dutch and in return relinquished its claims to Sumatra and nearby smaller islands. Singapore, Pinang, and Malacca (which collectively became the Straits Settlements in 1826) were then administered by Britain.
In the mid-19th century tin-mining activity greatly expanded in the Malay Peninsula, and Malay rulers and the immigrant Chinese they employed became involved in territorial disputes. Fearful that these disputes might disrupt trade, the British took control of the peninsular states, working indirectly through the Malay rulers. Using diplomacy and taking advantage of dynastic quarrels, the British persuaded the rulers to accept British “residents” or “advisers,” who dictated policy. Before World War II (1939-1945) the native states were classified as either federated or unfederated, with British control somewhat looser in the unfederated states. The federated states were Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang. The unfederated states were Johor and the four northern states, which were acquired from Thailand in 1909. At the top of the British system of rule was a high commissioner, who was also governor of the Straits Settlements.
The present Malaysian territories in Borneo were largely under the domination of the powerful Muslim state of Brunei until the 19th century. Before then, Europeans traded on the island but made no permanent settlements. In 1841, however, the sultan of Brunei rewarded Sir James Brooke, an English adventurer who helped to suppress rebels, with a gift of land and the title raja of Sarawak. Brooke and his successors expanded the territory. To the east, the sultans of Brunei and Sulu also granted land to Europeans. In 1882 the British North Borneo (Chartered) Company purchased the European-held territory. British North Borneo and Sarawak became British protectorates in 1888.
British colonial impacts on Malaysia, especially West Malaysia, while not always positive, were profound. For example, Britain was directly or indirectly responsible for the establishment of the plantation system and the commercialization of agriculture; the framework for the present-day transportation system; multiracialism (through the importation of Chinese and Indian labor); the introduction of English and an educational system; and modern political institutions.
B The Coming of Independence
Malaya, Sarawak, and North Borneo were seized by the Japanese in 1941 and 1942 and remained under Japanese occupation until World War II ended in 1945. Ethnic rivalries complicated the movement for independence that emerged after the war. The British had encouraged Chinese and Indian immigration to supply labor needed by the tin, rubber, and other industries. In the 1940s the population of the Malay states was approximately 50 percent Malay, 37 percent Chinese, and 12 percent Indian. Deep divisions separated these groups, coinciding substantially with religious and linguistic differences. With independence approaching, Malays expressed concern that immigrants would acquire political power. In 1946 they protested successfully against a scheme, known as the Malayan Union, that would have given most immigrants citizenship and voting rights while reducing the power of the Malay rulers. In 1948 the peninsular states formed the Federation of Malaya, which retained the power of the sultans.
The Alliance, the dominant political party that emerged in the 1950s, was multiethnic in its leadership but also ensured separate representation of ethnic groups through three component parties: the United Malays National Organization, the Malayan Chinese Association, and the Malayan Indian Congress. The Alliance won an overwhelming victory in the first nationwide elections in 1955. The British and the Alliance worked out the constitution, providing for a federal state; a bicameral parliament consisting of one elected and one appointed body; citizenship for most non-Malays; and special provisions for the Malays, who were regarded as less economically developed and were given preference for civil service jobs, scholarships, and licenses. In 1957 the Federation of Malaya (which occupied what is now West Malaysia) gained independence from Britain. It joined the United Nations that same year.
Meanwhile, the government had been fighting a Communist-led rebellion, known as the Malayan Emergency, since 1948. Most Communists were poor ethnic Chinese who were opposed to British colonial rule. When the Federation of Malaya became independent in 1957, they continued to fight for Communist rule. By the time the conflict finally ended in 1960, about 11,000 people had died. Not until 1989, however, did the Communists formally agree to lay down their arms.
C An Independent Malaysia
In 1961 Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaya’s first prime minister, proposed a Malaysian federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo (later called Sabah), and Brunei. All but Brunei joined the federation in 1963. Economic and political disputes based on racial differences led to Singapore’s exit in 1965.
Since independence, ethnic disputes have dominated Malaysian politics. In the 1960s these disputes centered on the preeminence of Malays in politics and the supremacy of Chinese and Indians in the economic arena. In the 1969 general elections, the Alliance faced opposition from both Malay and non-Malay parties. Immediately afterward serious rioting broke out in Kuala Lumpur and at least 200 people were killed. The government invoked emergency powers and imposed restrictions on raising ethnically sensitive issues; parliament did not meet again until 1971.
The new prime minister, Tun Abdul Razak, announced a new program called the New Economic Policy (NEP) to alleviate poverty in general, but also to improve specifically the economic condition of the Malays. Among the goals of the NEP was to increase the employment of Malays in occupations dominated by non-Malays. He also broadened the Alliance (already extended to Sarawak and Sabah) into an organization called the National Front, which included some opposition parties. The National Front won the 1974 elections decisively and also, under Prime Minister Datuk Hussein Onn, the 1978 elections. Ethnicity, however, still dominated the political scene, and two major opposition parties opposed the National Front: the Islamic Party of Malaysia and the Democratic Action Party. When Hussein Onn retired in 1981, he was succeeded by his deputy, Mahathir bin Mohamad, who would lead Malaysia for the next 22 years.
D The Mahathir Era
A constitutional conflict in 1983 between the Mahathir government and the hereditary sultans led to a compromise restricting the power of Malaysia’s head of state (the Yang di-Pertuan Agong) to veto certain legislation. In 1987 the Mahathir government responded to the alleged threat of rising tensions between Malays and Chinese by arresting opposition leaders and suspending four newspapers. Constitutional amendments passed in 1993 and 1994 further restricted the powers of the head of state. The amendments prohibited the nine hereditary rulers from pardoning themselves or their families from criminal charges and removed the head of state’s power to delay legislation. The National Front, having won three consecutive victories in 1982, 1986, and 1990 with Mahathir as prime minister, gained an even greater majority in the elections of 1995. Mahathir again retained his position as prime minister.
In 1991 Mahathir launched his “Vision 2020” program to propel Malaysia into the ranks of developed industrialized nations by 2020. In 1997 and 1998, however, Southeast Asian financial markets suffered a serious blow when investors lost confidence in a number of Asian currencies and securities. During the regional economic crisis, the Mahathir government scaled back or postponed several important infrastructure projects. The impact of the crisis was not as severe in Malaysia as it was in some other Asian countries, but in the long term it was expected to delay Malaysia’s attainment of developed-nation status beyond 2020. Nevertheless, Malaysia continued to attract foreign investment and to develop as a major center of electronics manufacturing.
The economic crisis raised a political rift between Mahathir and Finance Minister Anwar Ibrahim, who had also served as deputy prime minister and was regarded as Mahathir’s most likely successor. They differed on what Malaysia’s response to the sudden economic downturn should be, and in September 1998 Mahathir dismissed Anwar from his government posts. Anwar and his supporters then launched a campaign against government corruption, and demonstrations in support of reform began to gain momentum around the country.
In late September riot police arrested Anwar, and he was subsequently charged with abuse of power and personal misconduct. He denied the charges, claiming they were part of a political conspiracy against him. In two separate and highly publicized trials in 1999 and 2000, Anwar was convicted of abuse of power and sodomy and sentenced to a total of 15 years in prison. Despite the controversy surrounding Anwar’s arrest, the National Front decisively won November 1999 legislative elections, and Mahathir retained the office of prime minister.
E New Prime Minister
In June 2002 Mahathir abruptly announced his resignation as the leader of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the dominant party in the National Front coalition. The announcement shocked his supporters, and he immediately agreed to remain in office until October 2003, thereby providing a transition period for his chosen successor, Minister of Home Affairs Abdullah bin Ahmad Badawi. Mahathir formally resigned on October 31, and Badawi became Malaysia’s new prime minister as the leader of UMNO.
Badawi soon demonstrated his own stature as a leader when the National Front won an overwhelming victory in the parliamentary elections of March 2004. Even under Mahathir, the National Front had never won by such a landslide. The front won 198 seats, or 90 percent of the seats in the House of Representatives, an increase from 77 percent. The National Front also won control of 12 of Malaysia’s 13 state legislative assemblies. The elections represented a major defeat for the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS), a fundamentalist party that had been the official opposition party and had previously controlled two state assemblies. PAS won just 7 seats, a decline from 26 seats, and it lost control of the state legislature in Terengganu, where it had imposed religious bans on alcohol and gambling. The official opposition party became the ethnic Chinese-dominated Democratic Action Party (DAP), which won 12 seats.
However, in 2008 the National Front coalition suffered its worst election result in decades, losing its two-thirds parliamentary majority and control of five state assemblies. Malaysia’s three main opposition parties—PAS, DAP, and the People’s Justice Party (PKR)—won a record number of seats and agreed to set aside their differences to form a coalition that could present a challenge to the National Front’s hold on power. These efforts were led by former government minister Anwar Ibrahim, who had been released from prison in 2004 after the Federal Court (Malaysia’s highest court) overturned the sodomy conviction against him. Meanwhile, Prime Minister Badawi came under sharp criticism for his leadership and faced a revolt within UMNO, with former prime minister Mahathir calling for his resignation in order to save the party.
Contributed By:
Richard Ulack
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
I INTRODUCTION
Malaysia, constitutional monarchy in Southeast Asia on the South China Sea. Malaysia is divided into two regions, known as West Malaysia and East Malaysia. West Malaysia, also known as Peninsular Malaysia, consists of the southern portion of the Malay Peninsula and nearby islands. Thailand borders West Malaysia on the north, and Singapore lies off the southern coastal tip. East Malaysia occupies the northern section of Borneo Island, as well as offshore islands. East Malaysia shares Borneo with Brunei, which lies on a small section of the northern coast, and with the Kalimantan region of Indonesia, which lies to the south. Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and 3 federal territories. The city of Kuala Lumpur, coextensive with the federal territory of the same name, is the capital and largest city. Located near Kuala Lumpur is the administrative center of the federal government, Putrajaya, which also makes up a federal territory.
From the late 18th to the early 19th century, Britain gradually gained control of Peninsular Malaysia, and most of northern Borneo fell into private British hands. During the same period, the largely Malay population became diversified, as ethnic Chinese and Indians immigrated to work in Malaysia’s tin and rubber industries. Since independence in 1957, ethnic tensions, especially between Chinese and Malays, have dominated political and economic issues. Despite the tensions, however, Malaysia has experienced rapid economic growth, particularly in the manufacturing sector, and economists include the country among Asia’s newly industrialized economies (NIEs).
II LAND AND RESOURCES
East and West Malaysia are separated by about 640 km (about 400 mi) of the South China Sea, and together comprise an area of 329,758 sq km (127,320 sq mi), with West Malaysia accounting for about 60 percent of this total. Peninsular Malaysia extends more than 800 km (500 mi) from north to south and spans 330 km (205 mi) at its widest point. In the north lies the Main Range, a mountainous spine that separates the east and west coastal plains. The Main Range rises to a maximum elevation of 2,187 m (7,175 ft) at Mount Tahan, West Malaysia’s highest point. The southern portion of the peninsula is relatively flat. Numerous small islands lie off the coast, including Langkaw (Pulau Langkawi) and Pinang off the northwest coast, and Tioman, a popular tourist destination off the southeast coast.
The states of Sarawak and Sabah (on Borneo), and the federal territory of Labuan (an island off the coast of Sabah) make up East Malaysia. On Borneo, East Malaysia has a maximum width of 275 km (171 mi) and extends about 1,130 km (about 700 mi) in length. Its jagged coastline is about 2,250 km (about 1,400 mi) long. Sarawak, occupying the southwestern section of East Malaysia, consists of swampy lowlands along the coast rising to high mountains in the interior, especially in the east. Sabah, in the northeast, has extensive lowlands in its eastern section. Along Borneo’s northern coast in Sabah is the Crocker Range, which rises to a maximum elevation of 4,101 m (13,455 ft) at Mount Kinabalu, the highest peak in Malaysia. Several small islands, most notably Labuan and Banggi, lie off the coast of Sabah.
A Rivers and Lakes
East Malaysia contains the country’s two longest rivers: the Rajang in Sarawak and the Kinabatangan in Sabah. They are each 560 km (350 mi) long and navigable for part of their courses. Also important is the 400-km (250-mi) long Baram River in Sarawak. Peninsular Malaysia’s longest rivers include the Pahang (470 km/290 mi long), the Kelantan (about 400 km/250 mi long), and the Perak (about 240 km/150 mi long), all of which are navigable for most of their courses. Most of Malaysia’s rivers have steep descents, especially those in Sarawak. Dam projects created Malaysia’s largest lakes, Lake Kenyir and Lake Temengor, both located in West Malaysia. Lake Kenyir is a popular tourist destination and borders on the Taman Negara National Park, the largest national park in Peninsular Malaysia. The country’s largest natural lake is Lake Bera, also in West Malaysia.
B Plant and Animal Life
Malaysia has abundant plant life in its coastal mangrove forests; in lowland tropical forests; and, at elevations over 1,200 m (3,900 ft), in mossy or montane oak forests. The country harbors an estimated 8,000 species of flowering plants, including 2,500 species of trees. The lowland forests contain some of the most important commercial timber species, including mahogany and teak. These trees often attain heights of more than 50 m (160 ft) and grow to about 3 m (about 10 ft) in circumference. Where forested areas are cleared, the ground is rapidly taken over by a coarse grass called Imperata cylindrica, an invasive weed that displaces other vegetation. The world’s largest flower, the giant rafflesia (also known as corpse lily), grows in East Malaysia. Sabah contains the largest of the pitcher plants, the Nepenthes rajah, which can hold up to 2 liters (0.5 gallon) of water. Approximately one-quarter of the land in Malaysia is cultivated or used for plantation agriculture.
Like other tropical forests, Malaysia’s forests include an enormous variety of animal life. Large mammals include Asian elephants; tigers; sun bears; tapirs; several species of deer; and rhinoceroses, which are endangered. Malaysia’s primates include the endangered orangutans and three species of protected gibbons. Other animals include more than 500 known species of birds; more than 100 species of snakes, including king cobras and pythons; and many amphibians and reptiles, including crocodiles and 80 species of lizards. Malaysia is renowned for its huge insect population, including many species of butterflies and moths. Some insects, including mosquitoes, hornets, red ants, scorpions, and certain spiders, can be harmful to people.
C Natural Resources
Malaysia has several important natural resources. Forests cover 63.4 percent of the land; Sabah and Sarawak are especially known for their tropical forests. West Malaysia has large deposits of tin and numerous rubber trees. Other minerals include copper and uranium. However, the country’s most important natural resources—and its most valuable exports—are oil and natural gas, found in onshore and offshore deposits, respectively. Petroleum reserves were estimated at 4 billion barrels in 2007, and natural gas reserves were about 2 trillion cubic meters (75 trillion cubic feet).
D Climate
Except in the highlands, Malaysia’s climate is hot and humid year round. Average daily temperatures vary from about 20° to 30°C (about 70° to 90°F). Average annual rainfall for the peninsula is about 2,500 mm (about 100 in). The exposed northern slopes of Sarawak and Sabah receive as much as 5,080 mm (200 in) of rain per year.
E Environmental Issues
Malaysia is home to some of the world’s most important tropical wildlife habitats, including rich rain forests and at least ten distinct types of wetlands. Malaysia has more than 2,000 plant and animal species found nowhere else on Earth. However, many species are threatened or endangered due to loss of habitat and poaching (illegal hunting).
Deforestation poses the main threat to Malaysia’s environment. Forests are cleared at an annual rate of 0.44 percent (1990–2005 average), mainly for the commercial export of tropical hardwoods and wood products. The logging of upland forests, which are particularly vulnerable, has led to slope erosion, siltation of rivers and streams, soil degradation, loss of wildlife habitat, and an increase in the amount of flood-prone areas. Many wetlands have also been disturbed or destroyed. The rate of deforestation is unsustainable in the long term, however, and the government’s forestry policies have drawn international and domestic criticism. In response, the government has somewhat reduced the extent of permissible logging areas and instituted reforestation programs. The government has also protected some areas as national parks. Kinabalu National Park, established in 1964 in Sabah, protects the area around Mount Kinabalu. The largest park of West Malaysia is Taman Negara National Park, covering more than 4,300 sq km (more than 1,600 sq mi) of dense tropical rain forest.
Urbanization and industrialization have caused problems with solid-waste management and water pollution, affecting many of the country’s coastal waters and rivers. Inshore and offshore fisheries resources are rapidly being depleted. The government of Malaysia is seeking to mitigate these problems through various means, including the Environmental Quality Act (1974) and the Fisheries Act (1985), but implementation and enforcement are often hampered by lack of resources.
III THE PEOPLE OF MALAYSIA
Malaysia’s estimated 2008 population was 25,259,428. The population growth rate was 1.74 percent in 2008. The overall population density is 77 persons per sq km (199 per sq mi), but the population is unevenly distributed; West Malaysia has a population density about twice the national average. Some 65 percent of Malaysia’s population is urban. Like most developing nations, Malaysia has experienced high rural-to-urban migration rates since the 1950s. Urban unemployment is very low in Malaysia, and this contributes to the growth. The labor shortage for low-skill jobs attracts many immigrants, particularly from Indonesia, the Philippines, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. Skilled workers are recruited primarily from India, Japan, and China.
In addition to Malaysia’s largest city, Kuala Lumpur, large cities in the country include Ipoh, Johor Baharu, Petaling Jaya, Kelang, Kuala Terengganu, and George Town (formerly Pinang). Kuala Lumpur, Petaling Jaya, and Kelang are part of the Kelang Valley conurbation, which is Malaysia’s largest urban region. Most of the conurbation is located in the state of Selangor, which surrounds the Kuala Lumpur federal territory. Selangor is Malaysia’s most populated state, followed by Johor and Sabah. From 1991 to 2000, Selangor had an annual population growth rate of about 6 percent—the highest of any Malaysian state. The growth was largely due to employment opportunities in the Kelang Valley conurbation and to the sprawl of the Kuala Lumpur greater metropolitan area beyond the borders of the federal territory. Growth of the metropolitan area has been spurred since the late 1990s by the construction of a new administrative center of the federal government, Putrajaya, about 40 km (about 25 mi) south of Kuala Lumpur, and the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, located south of Putrajaya.
A Ethnic Groups and Languages
Ethnic Malays and other indigenous peoples, sometimes known as Malayan peoples, comprised 65 percent of Malaysia’s population at the 2000 census. In Malaysia they are called bumiputera (sons of the soil). Other groups include ethnic Chinese, who constituted 26 percent of the population, and ethnic Indians, who made up about 8 percent. Small numbers of Indonesians, Thai, Europeans, and Australians also live in Malaysia. In West Malaysia ethnic Malays make up a majority of the population. In East Malaysia, however, numerous Dayak ethnic groups constitute a sizable population, as do Chinese, especially in Sarawak. The national language is Bahasa Malaysia (also known simply as Malay), a Malay language of the Austronesian language family. English, Chinese, and Tamil (a Dravidian language of southern India) are also widely spoken.
B Religion
Islam is the country’s official religion, although the constitution guarantees freedom of religion. More than half the people of Malaysia are Muslims, including nearly all ethnic Malays. Most Chinese are Buddhists, although Confucianism and Daoism (Taoism) are also important. Most Indians practice Hinduism. In Sabah and Sarawak many of the indigenous peoples are Christians, although traditional beliefs are also widely practiced.
C Education
In Malaysia education is free and compulsory for children between the ages of 6 and 16, and an additional two years of free education are optional. In 2002–2003, virtually all Malaysian children attended primary school. Parents may choose between Bahasa Malaysia, Chinese, or Tamil as the language of instruction for their primary school children. Bahasa Malaysia is the primary language of instruction in all secondary schools, although continued learning in Chinese and Tamil is available and English is a compulsory second language. Enrollment in secondary education was 70 percent in 2002–2003. Malaysia has a number of institutions of higher education, including nine universities. Universities include the National University, in Bangi; the University of Technology, in Johor Baharu; and the University of Malaya, in Kuala Lumpur.
D Way of Life
The people of Malaysia have a variety of lifestyles. Important among ethnic Malays are respect and obedience toward parents and elders, community self-help, and, in rural areas, the maintenance of law and order through cooperation and respect for the village headman. Marriages, burial customs, and other aspects of Malay life conform to Islamic law. In general, religion plays a major role in each group’s way of life. Wedding ceremonies of ethnic Indians, for example, follow Hindu traditions, whereby the wedding takes place on a day and hour prescribed by a Hindu astrologer. Traditional Chinese family structure is patrilineal and patriarchal; as in China, sons are preferred over daughters in order to maintain the family surname through descent. Kinship ties among the extended Chinese family are very strong and carry into the business environment. Because ethnic Chinese own many Malaysian businesses, these ties hinder occupational mobility among Malays.
Rural ways of life differ significantly from urban lifestyles. In East Malaysia, about three-quarters of the population is rural. Many indigenous ethnic groups, including the Iban (Sea Dayaks), Bidayuh (Land Dayaks), and Kadazan, practice shifting cultivation (also known as slash-and-burn agriculture). In this type of agriculture, trees and grasses are burned from an area so a crop may be planted; after several seasons, the land is abandoned and a new area is burned for planting. These groups live mostly in single-family housing units, but many indigenous people in East Malaysia live in longhouses, a traditional dwelling of Borneo.
E Social Issues
Since Malaysia gained independence, there have been significant differences in the social standing of the three main ethnic groups—indigenous bumiputras (mostly Malays), ethnic Chinese, and Indians. Many of these differences are holdovers from the colonial period. While Malays have traditionally predominated in politics and government, ethnic Chinese and Indians have been disproportionately successful in the economy. The incidence of poverty is significantly higher in rural areas, where the majority of bumiputras live. Bumiputras generally work as laborers on estate farms, raise crops on small plots, or practice subsistence agriculture (farming to meet family or village needs rather than for profit). In general, ethnic Chinese have played the major role in both the rural and urban sectors of the economy, and this has been an issue of contention for many bumiputras. In May 1969 ethnic-based tensions erupted into violent riots in Malaysia. In 1970 the government introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP) to try to eliminate the relationship between ethnicity and income. The 20-year period of the NEP produced some improvements, including a reduction of people living at or below poverty level, from 52 percent in 1970 to 17 percent in 1990. However, the income gap between groups, especially bumiputras and ethnic Chinese, remained substantial. In 1991 the government introduced the New Development Policy (NDP) as a successor to the NEP, continuing many of the same initiatives but with a stronger emphasis on increasing business ownership among bumiputras. In the early 2000s economic and social differences continued to be a significant social issue in Malaysia.
IV CULTURE
Malaysia reflects different cultural traditions, including those of China, India, the Middle East, Europe, and the entire Malay Archipelago. Early Malay empires absorbed Indian influences, such as Hindu epics and the Sanskrit language. The kingdom of Malacca, centered in the present-day state of Melaka, developed as an Islamic state, or sultanate, in the 1400s. Later, new cultural influences from Europe and China mixed with Hindu and Islamic traditions. A collective but distinctively Malay cultural pattern has emerged out of all these influences, with artistic expressions in literature, music, dance, and art forms.
A Literature
Malaysia’s most important literary work is the Sejarah Melayu (Malay Annals). Written in the 1500s, this work presents a somewhat romanticized account of the Malacca sultanate. European colonizers on Peninsular Malaysia (the Portuguese in 1511, the Dutch in 1641, and finally the English in the 18th century) greatly affected the local literary style. In print, the vernacular, or spoken language, replaced the classical literary style of Malay, and in 1876 the first Malaysian newspaper used the vernacular.
B Art and Architecture
Malaysian decorative art forms include colorful batik cloth, silverware, pewter items, and woodcarvings. Like other elements of Malaysian culture, its architecture reflects influences from India, China, and Islam. These influences are most pronounced in religious structures. The British introduced colonial architecture and, in buildings such as the old post office and railway station in Kuala Lumpur, the Moorish style. From 1998 to 2003 Malaysia boasted the world’s tallest buildings, the Petronas Towers. Each tower rises 452 m (1,483 ft). The architect, Argentine American Cesar Pelli, found inspiration for the design of the buildings in traditional Malaysian Islamic architecture.
C Music, Dance, and Drama
Hindu, Islamic, and Indonesian forms influenced music in Malaysia. For example, wayang kulit (shadow-puppet theater), was introduced from Java in the 13th century, and today is most commonly found in the state of Kelantan. Malaysian musical instruments include distinctive drums (gendang), of which there are at least 14 types; gongs and other percussion instruments made from native materials such as bamboo (kertuk and pertuang) and coconut shells (raurau); and a variety of wind instruments, including flutes. Ensembles (nobat) and orchestras (gamelan) play these instruments at special occasions. Chinese musical forms, including Chinese opera, were more recently introduced into Malaysia.
D Libraries and Museums
Three of Malaysia’s major museums—the National Museum of Malaysia, in Kuala Lumpur; the Sabah Museum, in Kota Kinabalu; and the Sarawak Museum, in Kuching—exhibit collections of regional ethnographic and archaeological materials. The National Library of Malaysia and the National Archives are in Kuala Lumpur. Each state has its own museum exhibiting local items.
V ECONOMY
The economy of Malaysia once relied principally on the production of raw materials for export, most importantly petroleum, natural rubber, tin, palm oil, and timber. After Malaysia gained independence in 1957, however, the development of the manufacturing sector took priority. From the mid-1970s to mid-1990s Malaysia had one of the world’s fastest-growing economies, mainly due to rapid industrialization. In the late 1980s industry replaced agriculture as the largest contributor to the gross domestic product (GDP). The services sector, especially tourism, also drove growth.
In 1991 the Malaysian government launched the ambitious “Vision 2020” program, which envisions Malaysia attaining the status of a developed nation by 2020. Toward this goal, the government has invested heavily in modernizing the infrastructure of the Kuala Lumpur metropolitan area. The modernization is designed to propel Malaysia into the digital age and position it as a hub for high-technology businesses in Southeast Asia. However, the country’s reliance on exports of manufactured goods, such as computer microchips and other electrical components, has made its economy susceptible to regional and global economic downturns. Malaysia was one of many Asian countries that suffered economic decline during a regional economic crisis in 1997 and 1998. This crisis led to the delay of some infrastructure projects and possibly of the Vision 2020 goal.
The nation’s economy expanded an average of 5.9 percent annually in the period 2006. In 2003 Malaysia’s annual budget included revenues of about $21 billion and expenditures of about $25 billion. The country’s GDP was $150.7 billion in 2006. Industry, including mining and construction, accounted for 50 percent of the GDP; services, 41 percent; and agriculture, forestry, and fishing, 9 percent.
A Labor
In 2006 Malaysia had a labor force of 11.6 million workers. Some 15 percent of Malaysian jobs were in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 30 percent in industry; and 53 percent in services. Unemployment was comparatively low, with only 3.5 percent of the workforce unable to find work in 2004.
B Agriculture, Forestry, and Fishing
Some 5 percent of Malaysia’s land is under cultivation for field crops and 18 percent is used for plantation agriculture. Malaysia ranks as the world’s leading producer and exporter of palm oil. The country was once the leading producer of natural rubber, but in the early 1990s Thailand and Indonesia surpassed Malaysia after Malaysia began shifting to more profitable crops such as palm oil. Other important export crops are cacao, sugarcane, pepper, coconuts, and pineapples. The principal subsistence crop is rice. Cassava and bananas are also important.
The country is a leading world supplier of tropical hardwoods. Exports of raw timber have declined since the mid-1990s, in part because the government of Malaysia introduced measures to encourage the local production of finished goods, such as plywood and furniture. Most wood processing takes place in West Malaysia, where log exports are banned, while Sarawak provides the bulk of raw timber.
In 2005 Malaysia’s annual fish catch was 1.4 million metric tons, nearly all of it from ocean waters. Aquaculture (the farming of fish and shellfish) has expanded rapidly to help supply the domestic market. However, domestic production of fish has not kept pace with increasing consumption, and Malaysia is an importer of fish products.
C Mining
Production of petroleum and natural gas has increased greatly since the 1970s, and the refining of crude oil is a major industry. In 2004 mineral fuels provided 12 percent of Malaysia’s export revenues. Malaysia’s tin reserves rank among the largest in the world, although production has declined sharply, from about 70,000 metric tons of concentrates in the early 1970s to about 3,000 in 2004. Much of the decline is due to a sharp fall in the world commodity price for the metal. Mining activity also yields bauxite, copper, iron ore, silver, and gold.
D Manufacturing
In 2004 manufactured items accounted for 75 percent of exports by value. Electronic goods constitute most of Malaysia’s manufactured exports. Principal industrial activities are the processing of palm oil, petroleum, timber, rubber, and tin; and the production of electrical and electronic equipment, processed food, textiles, chemicals, building materials, and handicrafts. In addition, Malaysia produces its own automobile, the Proton.
E Services
Among the most important of the service industries is tourism. The government has launched successful international campaigns to promote tourism in Malaysia. In 2006, 17.5 million tourists traveled to Malaysia for short visits from nearby Singapore or other Southeast Asian countries, although a large number arrived from more distant places, including Japan and Taiwan.
F Energy
Malaysia is self-sufficient in energy. In 2003 annual production was 79 billion kilowatt-hours. Some 93 percent of the country’s production came from thermal plants burning fossil fuels (petroleum and natural gas), and 7 percent was from hydroelectric sources.
G Transportation and Communications
The framework of West Malaysia’s system of roads and railroads was laid down during the British colonial period. A main highway in western Peninsular Malaysia extends over 800 km (500 mi) from Singapore to the Thai border in the north. The road system in Sabah and Sarawak is much less developed; a main road runs along Borneo’s northern coast but there are few good interior roads. The state-owned railroad system consists of 1,667 km (1,036 mi) of track, most of which is in West Malaysia and with a short stretch in Sabah. Malaysia Airlines, founded in 1971, offers both domestic and international flights. Other domestic carriers also offer local flights. Malaysia has a number of international airports, including the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, located south of the city at Sepang. Major seaports in West Malaysia are Port Kelang, George Town, and Melaka. Kuching and Labuan are the major seaports serving Sarawak and Sabah, respectively.
The government of Malaysia tightly controls and monitors most public communications. Government censorship, and the expectation of it, imposes restrictions on the news media. Malaysia has 35 daily newspapers publishing in four languages. A government agency, Radio Television Malaysia, controls and monitors radio and television broadcasting. The state-run Radio Malaysia operates six radio networks, and Television Malaysia operates two television networks; two private television networks also exist. The government has made it a policy to not censor the Internet, which as a consequence has become an important alternative source of information for the Malaysian public.
H Foreign Trade
Export trade totaled $127 billion in 2004. Major exports include semiconductors and electrical equipment, palm oil, chemicals, petroleum, machinery appliances and parts, wood and wood products, and textiles. The chief buyers of exports are the United States, Singapore, Japan, China (including Hong Kong), and Thailand. Imports were valued at $104 billion in 2004. Major imports include electrical and electronic products, machinery and transportation equipment, chemicals, manufactures of metal, petroleum, and iron and steel products. The leading suppliers of imported goods are Japan, the United States, Singapore, China, Taiwan, and South Korea.
Malaysia is a founding member of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) and is a full participant in the ASEAN Free Trade Area (AFTA), established in 1992 with the goal of establishing nearly free trade among member nations. With the formal implementation of AFTA in 2002, member nations were to gradually reduce tariff barriers to 5 percent or less. Malaysia became a member of the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 1995.
I Currency and Banking
The Malaysian unit of currency is the ringgit, consisting of 100 sen (3.70 ringgits equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). Malaysia’s central bank and bank of issue is the Bank Negara Malaysia, in Kuala Lumpur. There is a stock exchange in Kuala Lumpur.
VI GOVERNMENT
Malaysia is a federal constitutional monarchy with a two-house legislature. The government is based on the 1957 constitution of the Federation of Malaya, which was an independent nation from 1957 to 1963 that occupied present-day West Malaysia. The Federation of Malaya joined with Singapore, Sarawak, and Sabah to form the Federation of Malaysia in 1963, although Singapore became an independent republic in 1965. All citizens of Malaysia who are at least 21 years old may vote.
A Executive
The head of state is the Yang di-Pertuan Agong (Paramount Ruler), who is selected by and from nine hereditary sultans, or rulers, and serves a five-year term. Executive power is exercised by the prime minister, who is the leader of the majority party or coalition in the House of Representatives (the lower house of the legislature) and is appointed by the head of state.
B Legislature
The parliament consists of a House of Representatives (Dewan Rakyat) with 219 members and a Senate (Dewan Negara) with up to 70 members. Representatives are popularly elected for five-year terms. Senators serve three-year terms, and may serve no more than two terms. Two senators are elected by each of the 13 state legislatures, and the head of state appoints the rest, including senators for the federal territories. Legislative power is divided between the federal and local state legislatures.
C Judiciary
The Federal Court (formerly the Supreme Court) is the highest court. Below this are two High Courts, one serving West Malaysia and the other serving East Malaysia. A Court of Appeal hears appeals from the Federal Court, and the Federal Court hears appeals from the High Courts. Each High Court has a chief judge and several other judges; the Federal Court consists of the chief justice, the president of the Court of Appeal, the two chief judges from the High Courts, and five other judges. The chief justice, chief judges, and other judges from the Federal Court and High Courts are appointed by the Yang di-Pertuan Agong on the advice of the prime minister and the Conference of Rulers, which consists of the nine hereditary rulers and the heads of the other states. Lower courts include the Sessions Courts and the Magistrates’ Courts. Islamic laws apply to Muslims and Muslims may be prosecuted in Islamic courts at the state level.
D Local Government
West Malaysia is divided into the federal territories of Kuala Lumpur and Putrajaya and 11 states: Johor, Kedah, Kelantan, Melaka, Negeri Sembilan, Pahang, Perak, Perlis, Pinang, Selangor, and Terengganu. East Malaysia consists of the states of Sabah and Sarawak, and the Federal Territory of Labuan. Each of the 13 states has a titular ruler whose title varies in different states. Effective executive power in the states rests with the chief minister, who heads an executive council, or cabinet. Each state has its own written constitution and a unicameral legislative assembly empowered to legislate on matters not reserved for the federal parliament.
E Political Parties
The leading political party in Malaysia is the United Malays National Organization (UMNO). The UMNO is the dominant party in a coalition called the National Front (Barisan Nasional). Other parties include the Democratic Action Party (DAP), Islamic Party of Malaysia (Parti Islam se Malaysia, or PAS), and People’s Justice Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat, or PKR).
F Social Services
The Ministry of Health operates a comprehensive health-care system. Government hospitals provide care for all who need it. In addition, most large towns and cities have private hospitals that provide sophisticated medical treatment for those who can pay. There is no national comprehensive system of social welfare, although there are programs that protect workers against, for example, sickness, accidents, and arbitrary dismissals. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) carry much of Malaysia’s social welfare burden.
G Defense
In 2004 the Malaysian armed forces included 110,000 active-duty personnel, of which 80,000 were in the army, 15,000 were in the air force, and 15,000 were in the navy. Military service is voluntary. Malaysia’s military plays an apolitical role and is under the complete control of the civilian government.
H International Organizations
Malaysia is a member of most major international organizations, including the United Nations (UN) and many of its member agencies. Other organizations to which Malaysia belongs include the Commonwealth of Nations, an association of mostly former British colonies, and the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), which promotes solidarity among nations where Islam is an important religion.
VII HISTORY
Humans lived in the area of present-day Malaysia as long as 40,000 years ago. The early history of the area is obscure because there are few local documents and almost no archaeological remains, especially any with inscriptions. According to Chinese sources, however, early contacts were made with China. Traders also spread Hindu influences from India, which affected people’s customs and the rituals of local rulers. Peninsular Malaysia was not unified politically but was split into small kingdoms and subdivided into chiefdoms defined by river valleys. Political rule of Borneo was even more fragmented. Some of the mainland kingdoms may have been subject to a degree of control by larger empires centered in Cambodia or Java, such as Majapahit.
About AD 1400 Parameswara, a Sumatran prince, founded the kingdom of Malacca on the site of present-day Melaka. He was converted to Islam, which traders from India had already brought to the area, and Malacca became a center for the further spread of the Muslim faith. Malacca prospered and expanded its influence into most of the Malay Archipelago, but in 1511 it was conquered by the Portuguese under Afonso de Albuquerque. The Portuguese in Malacca survived constant fighting with neighboring Johor, Aceh in Sumatra, and other states. In 1641, however, Malacca fell to the Dutch, who replaced the Portuguese as the leading European trading power in the region. Like their predecessors, the Dutch were frequently at war with neighboring kingdoms and succeeded in extending their influence to parts of Johor. In this period the northern Malay kingdoms—Perlis, Kedah, Kelantan, and Terengganu—were frequently under the influence of Siam (present-day Thailand).
A The Imposition of British Rule
The British became active in the area in the 18th century, partly because they sought trade, but also to check French power in the Indian Ocean. The sultan of Kedah, looking for help against the Siamese, leased the island of Pinang to the English East India Company in 1786, and Sir Thomas Stamford Raffles, a company administrator, founded Singapore in 1819. Under the Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824, Britain secured Malacca from the Dutch and in return relinquished its claims to Sumatra and nearby smaller islands. Singapore, Pinang, and Malacca (which collectively became the Straits Settlements in 1826) were then administered by Britain.
In the mid-19th century tin-mining activity greatly expanded in the Malay Peninsula, and Malay rulers and the immigrant Chinese they employed became involved in territorial disputes. Fearful that these disputes might disrupt trade, the British took control of the peninsular states, working indirectly through the Malay rulers. Using diplomacy and taking advantage of dynastic quarrels, the British persuaded the rulers to accept British “residents” or “advisers,” who dictated policy. Before World War II (1939-1945) the native states were classified as either federated or unfederated, with British control somewhat looser in the unfederated states. The federated states were Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, and Pahang. The unfederated states were Johor and the four northern states, which were acquired from Thailand in 1909. At the top of the British system of rule was a high commissioner, who was also governor of the Straits Settlements.
The present Malaysian territories in Borneo were largely under the domination of the powerful Muslim state of Brunei until the 19th century. Before then, Europeans traded on the island but made no permanent settlements. In 1841, however, the sultan of Brunei rewarded Sir James Brooke, an English adventurer who helped to suppress rebels, with a gift of land and the title raja of Sarawak. Brooke and his successors expanded the territory. To the east, the sultans of Brunei and Sulu also granted land to Europeans. In 1882 the British North Borneo (Chartered) Company purchased the European-held territory. British North Borneo and Sarawak became British protectorates in 1888.
British colonial impacts on Malaysia, especially West Malaysia, while not always positive, were profound. For example, Britain was directly or indirectly responsible for the establishment of the plantation system and the commercialization of agriculture; the framework for the present-day transportation system; multiracialism (through the importation of Chinese and Indian labor); the introduction of English and an educational system; and modern political institutions.
B The Coming of Independence
Malaya, Sarawak, and North Borneo were seized by the Japanese in 1941 and 1942 and remained under Japanese occupation until World War II ended in 1945. Ethnic rivalries complicated the movement for independence that emerged after the war. The British had encouraged Chinese and Indian immigration to supply labor needed by the tin, rubber, and other industries. In the 1940s the population of the Malay states was approximately 50 percent Malay, 37 percent Chinese, and 12 percent Indian. Deep divisions separated these groups, coinciding substantially with religious and linguistic differences. With independence approaching, Malays expressed concern that immigrants would acquire political power. In 1946 they protested successfully against a scheme, known as the Malayan Union, that would have given most immigrants citizenship and voting rights while reducing the power of the Malay rulers. In 1948 the peninsular states formed the Federation of Malaya, which retained the power of the sultans.
The Alliance, the dominant political party that emerged in the 1950s, was multiethnic in its leadership but also ensured separate representation of ethnic groups through three component parties: the United Malays National Organization, the Malayan Chinese Association, and the Malayan Indian Congress. The Alliance won an overwhelming victory in the first nationwide elections in 1955. The British and the Alliance worked out the constitution, providing for a federal state; a bicameral parliament consisting of one elected and one appointed body; citizenship for most non-Malays; and special provisions for the Malays, who were regarded as less economically developed and were given preference for civil service jobs, scholarships, and licenses. In 1957 the Federation of Malaya (which occupied what is now West Malaysia) gained independence from Britain. It joined the United Nations that same year.
Meanwhile, the government had been fighting a Communist-led rebellion, known as the Malayan Emergency, since 1948. Most Communists were poor ethnic Chinese who were opposed to British colonial rule. When the Federation of Malaya became independent in 1957, they continued to fight for Communist rule. By the time the conflict finally ended in 1960, about 11,000 people had died. Not until 1989, however, did the Communists formally agree to lay down their arms.
C An Independent Malaysia
In 1961 Tunku Abdul Rahman, Malaya’s first prime minister, proposed a Malaysian federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sarawak, North Borneo (later called Sabah), and Brunei. All but Brunei joined the federation in 1963. Economic and political disputes based on racial differences led to Singapore’s exit in 1965.
Since independence, ethnic disputes have dominated Malaysian politics. In the 1960s these disputes centered on the preeminence of Malays in politics and the supremacy of Chinese and Indians in the economic arena. In the 1969 general elections, the Alliance faced opposition from both Malay and non-Malay parties. Immediately afterward serious rioting broke out in Kuala Lumpur and at least 200 people were killed. The government invoked emergency powers and imposed restrictions on raising ethnically sensitive issues; parliament did not meet again until 1971.
The new prime minister, Tun Abdul Razak, announced a new program called the New Economic Policy (NEP) to alleviate poverty in general, but also to improve specifically the economic condition of the Malays. Among the goals of the NEP was to increase the employment of Malays in occupations dominated by non-Malays. He also broadened the Alliance (already extended to Sarawak and Sabah) into an organization called the National Front, which included some opposition parties. The National Front won the 1974 elections decisively and also, under Prime Minister Datuk Hussein Onn, the 1978 elections. Ethnicity, however, still dominated the political scene, and two major opposition parties opposed the National Front: the Islamic Party of Malaysia and the Democratic Action Party. When Hussein Onn retired in 1981, he was succeeded by his deputy, Mahathir bin Mohamad, who would lead Malaysia for the next 22 years.
D The Mahathir Era
A constitutional conflict in 1983 between the Mahathir government and the hereditary sultans led to a compromise restricting the power of Malaysia’s head of state (the Yang di-Pertuan Agong) to veto certain legislation. In 1987 the Mahathir government responded to the alleged threat of rising tensions between Malays and Chinese by arresting opposition leaders and suspending four newspapers. Constitutional amendments passed in 1993 and 1994 further restricted the powers of the head of state. The amendments prohibited the nine hereditary rulers from pardoning themselves or their families from criminal charges and removed the head of state’s power to delay legislation. The National Front, having won three consecutive victories in 1982, 1986, and 1990 with Mahathir as prime minister, gained an even greater majority in the elections of 1995. Mahathir again retained his position as prime minister.
In 1991 Mahathir launched his “Vision 2020” program to propel Malaysia into the ranks of developed industrialized nations by 2020. In 1997 and 1998, however, Southeast Asian financial markets suffered a serious blow when investors lost confidence in a number of Asian currencies and securities. During the regional economic crisis, the Mahathir government scaled back or postponed several important infrastructure projects. The impact of the crisis was not as severe in Malaysia as it was in some other Asian countries, but in the long term it was expected to delay Malaysia’s attainment of developed-nation status beyond 2020. Nevertheless, Malaysia continued to attract foreign investment and to develop as a major center of electronics manufacturing.
The economic crisis raised a political rift between Mahathir and Finance Minister Anwar Ibrahim, who had also served as deputy prime minister and was regarded as Mahathir’s most likely successor. They differed on what Malaysia’s response to the sudden economic downturn should be, and in September 1998 Mahathir dismissed Anwar from his government posts. Anwar and his supporters then launched a campaign against government corruption, and demonstrations in support of reform began to gain momentum around the country.
In late September riot police arrested Anwar, and he was subsequently charged with abuse of power and personal misconduct. He denied the charges, claiming they were part of a political conspiracy against him. In two separate and highly publicized trials in 1999 and 2000, Anwar was convicted of abuse of power and sodomy and sentenced to a total of 15 years in prison. Despite the controversy surrounding Anwar’s arrest, the National Front decisively won November 1999 legislative elections, and Mahathir retained the office of prime minister.
E New Prime Minister
In June 2002 Mahathir abruptly announced his resignation as the leader of the United Malays National Organization (UMNO), the dominant party in the National Front coalition. The announcement shocked his supporters, and he immediately agreed to remain in office until October 2003, thereby providing a transition period for his chosen successor, Minister of Home Affairs Abdullah bin Ahmad Badawi. Mahathir formally resigned on October 31, and Badawi became Malaysia’s new prime minister as the leader of UMNO.
Badawi soon demonstrated his own stature as a leader when the National Front won an overwhelming victory in the parliamentary elections of March 2004. Even under Mahathir, the National Front had never won by such a landslide. The front won 198 seats, or 90 percent of the seats in the House of Representatives, an increase from 77 percent. The National Front also won control of 12 of Malaysia’s 13 state legislative assemblies. The elections represented a major defeat for the Islamic Party of Malaysia (PAS), a fundamentalist party that had been the official opposition party and had previously controlled two state assemblies. PAS won just 7 seats, a decline from 26 seats, and it lost control of the state legislature in Terengganu, where it had imposed religious bans on alcohol and gambling. The official opposition party became the ethnic Chinese-dominated Democratic Action Party (DAP), which won 12 seats.
However, in 2008 the National Front coalition suffered its worst election result in decades, losing its two-thirds parliamentary majority and control of five state assemblies. Malaysia’s three main opposition parties—PAS, DAP, and the People’s Justice Party (PKR)—won a record number of seats and agreed to set aside their differences to form a coalition that could present a challenge to the National Front’s hold on power. These efforts were led by former government minister Anwar Ibrahim, who had been released from prison in 2004 after the Federal Court (Malaysia’s highest court) overturned the sodomy conviction against him. Meanwhile, Prime Minister Badawi came under sharp criticism for his leadership and faced a revolt within UMNO, with former prime minister Mahathir calling for his resignation in order to save the party.
Contributed By:
Richard Ulack
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
MALAWI
Malawi
I INTRODUCTION
Malawi, republic in southeastern Africa, formerly the British protectorate of Nyasaland, bounded on the north by Tanzania, on the east by Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa), on the southeast and south by Mozambique, and on the west by Zambia. Malawi extends about 835 km (about 520 mi) north to south and varies in width from about 80 to 160 km (about 50 to 100 mi). The total area of the country is 118,484 sq km (45,747 sq mi), nearly one-fifth of which is water surface, mainly Lake Malawi and three smaller lakes. The capital of Malawi is Lilongwe, and the largest city is Blantyre.
II LAND AND RESOURCES
Part of the Great Rift Valley runs through Malawi from north to south. In this deep trough lies Lake Malawi, the third largest lake in Africa. The Shire River flows from the southern end of the lake to the Zambezi River in Mozambique. To the east and west of the Great Rift Valley the land rises to form high plateaus, generally about 900 to 1,200 m (about 3,000 to 4,000 ft) in elevation but reaching about 2,400 m (about 8,000 ft) in the Nyika uplands in the north. South of Lake Malawi lie the Shire Highlands, which rise to more than 2,700 m (9,000 ft). Sapitwa (Mount Mulanje), central Africa’s highest peak at 3,002 m (9,849 ft), is here.
A Climate
The climate in Malawi varies with the elevation. In the low-lying Shire Valley it is hot and humid, with temperatures averaging from 21°C (69°F) to 29°C (84°F) depending on the season. In the highlands the climate is more equable. The rainy season lasts from November to April. Annual rainfall averages about 2,300 mm (about 90 in) in the highlands and about 800 mm (about 30 in) in the lowlands.
B Natural Resources
The resources of Malawi are almost entirely agricultural. Mineral wealth is slight, although some marble, limestone, and coal are produced. A thin forest of small trees covers large parts of the country, and some timber trees grow in the damp ravines of the mountains and along the riverbanks. Baobab grow on the plains near Lake Malawi and in the southern valleys. Acacia and conifers grow in the highlands.
Animal life in Malawi includes elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, zebras, monkeys, and several varieties of antelope. Hippopotamuses inhabit the lake shores. Snakes and other reptiles, birds, and insects are plentiful, and the rivers and lakes abound in fish.
C Environmental Issues
Malawi is a very poor country that has a high population density and a high population growth rate. Most people depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, and traditional fuels, particularly fuelwood and charcoal, account for 89 percent (1997) of the country’s total energy use. The high population density and dependence on the land put great pressure on the environment for more farmland and fuelwood. Malawi has one of the highest rates of annual deforestation in Africa, at 0.9 percent (1990–2005).
Unsafe sewage disposal, agricultural runoff, and soil erosion due to deforestation combine to contaminate much of the country’s fresh water. Only 73 percent (2004) of the population has access to safe water. In addition, erosion causes siltation of rivers and streams, endangering fish populations.
Nevertheless, Malawi has a rich and diverse wildlife population, and about 29 percent (2005) of the country’s total land area remains forested. Experts believe that Lake Malawi has more endemic species of fish than any other lake in the world. Of the country’s total land area, 16.4 percent (2007) is designated protected. Lake Malawi National Park, at the southern end of the lake, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1984. Poaching continues to be a problem in the protected areas, however. The government has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine life conservation, ozone layer protection, and wetlands.
III POPULATION
More than 99 percent of the people of Malawi are black Africans. Principal ethnic groups include the Chewa, who constitute 90 percent of the population of the central region; the Nyanja, who predominate in the south; the Tumbuka, who predominate in the north; the Ngoni, an offshoot of the Zulu, who settled in the lower northern and lower central regions in the 1800s; and the Yao, who are mostly Muslim and live along the southeastern border. The rest of the inhabitants, principally settlers of British and Indian origin, form less than one-half of 1 percent of the population. Some 83 percent of the people live in rural villages.
A Population Characteristics
The population of Malawi is 13,931,831 (2008 estimate). The country has an overall population density of 148 persons per sq km (384 per sq mi), one of the highest in Africa.
B Political Divisions and Principal Cities
Malawi is divided into 3 regions and 24 districts. The largest city is Blantyre (population, 1998, 502,053). The capital, since 1975, is Lilongwe (587,000).
C Religion and Language
Christians make up 76 percent of the inhabitants of Malawi. Another 15 percent are Muslim, and 8 percent practice traditional religions. English is Malawi’s official language and is the primary language of instruction in the schools. Chichewa, a Bantu language, is the national language, and a number of other Bantu languages are widely spoken.
D Education
In the early 1990s about 1.4 million students attended primary schools. However, after the government made primary education in Malawi free, enrollment increased dramatically. In the 2000 school year 2.7 million students attended 4,841 primary schools. In an effort to reduce overcrowding, the government has recruited more than 20,000 new teachers. Enrollment in secondary schools remains low, however, with only 33 percent of secondary school-aged children attending. The University of Malawi at Zomba (founded in 1964) and its affiliated institutions had 4,600 students in 2002–2003.
IV ECONOMY
Malawi is primarily an agricultural country, with 54 percent of its working force engaged in farming, fishing, and forestry. The nation has traditionally been self-sufficient in food, but malnutrition among children was a serious problem as the 1990s began. The principal crops are corn, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, and peanuts. Major exports include tobacco, tea, sugar, and peanuts. A growing fishing industry, producing for domestic needs, is centered at Nkhotakota on the western shore of Lake Malawi. In 2005 the catch was 59,595 metric tons. Major manufactures, principally for domestic consumption, include processed food, chemical products, textiles, and beverages. The national budget for 1992 included revenues of $416 million and expenditures of $498 million. Many Malawians work as migratory laborers in South Africa and other countries.
A Energy
Some 98 percent of Malawi’s electricity is produced by hydroelectric facilities. In 2003 Malawi generated 1,296 million kilowatt-hours of electricity.
B Currency and Foreign Trade
The unit of currency in Malawi is the kwacha, consisting of 100 tambala (136 kwacha equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). Currency is issued by the Reserve Bank of Malawi, established in 1965.
In 2003 the value of exports was $457 million. Imports, which typically consist of manufactured goods, fertilizers, machinery, motor vehicles, textiles, and petroleum, were valued at $724 million. Malawi’s principal trading partners for exports are South Africa, Germany, Japan, the United States, and Mozambique; chief partners for imports are South Africa, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
C Transportation and Communications
With the completion of a line from Salima to Mchinji on the Zambian border in 1980, Malawi owns 797 km (495 mi) of operated railroad track. Total road mileage in 2003 was 15,451 km (9,601 mi), of which only a small portion was paved or gravel surfaced. Passenger and freight traffic on Lake Malawi is extensive. Air Malawi provides domestic as well as international service.
In 2004 Malawi had 2 daily newspapers, with a combined circulation of 25,000. The Daily Times, published in Blantyre, is the most widely read daily newspaper. The government operates the postal and telegraph service. Radio transmitters are located in Blantyre and Lilongwe. The country has an estimated 8 telephone mainlines and 501 radios for every 1,000 inhabitants.
V GOVERNMENT
Under the country’s latest constitution, which went into effect in 1995, Malawi is a republic with an elected president, who is both the head of government and the head of state. Cabinet ministers are responsible to the president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal adult suffrage.
A Legislature
The parliament of Malawi is the unicameral National Assembly, made up of 193 members who are popularly elected to terms of up to five years, with additional members nominated by the president. The Malawi Congress Party (MCP) was the sole legal political party from 1966 until 1993; the first multiparty elections were held in 1994. The MCP and the United Democratic Front (UDF) hold most of the seats in parliament.
B Judiciary and Local Government
The judicial system comprises a Supreme Court of Appeal, a High Court, magistrates’ courts, and local courts. The high court has unlimited jurisdiction in all civil and criminal cases and hears appeals from lower courts. Popularly elected councils in Malawi’s 24 districts and 8 municipalities are responsible for all government services within their areas.
C Defense
In 2004 the total strength of Malawi’s armed forces was 5,300. In addition, the country had a paramilitary national police force of 1,000 members.
VI HISTORY
Some evidence of Stone Age and later Iron Age settlements has been found around Lake Malawi. Bantu peoples moved into the territory in the 1st millennium ad. By the 16th century a Malawi kingdom, from which the present name of the country is derived, had a prospering trade with the coastal areas of Mozambique.
Jesuit missionaries from Portugal visited the territory near Lake Malawi as early as the 17th century, but the lake probably was not known to Europeans until Scottish missionary and explorer David Livingstone reached its shores in 1859. European involvement began in 1875 and 1876, when Scottish church missions were established; a British consul was stationed in the country in 1883. Subsequent warfare with Arab slave traders and fear of Portuguese expansion from Mozambique led to a mission by British explorer and colonial official Harry Johnston, who negotiated treaties with the indigenous rulers. In 1891 the treaties resulted in a formal declaration of a British protectorate, called the Nyasaland Districts Protectorate. Beginning in 1893, it was known as the British Central Africa Protectorate, and in 1907 the area was officially designated the Nyasaland Protectorate. In 1915 John Chilembwe, an African preacher, staged a short, bloody uprising in response to the treatment of Africans by British colonists. The uprising is considered a forerunner of later nationalist movements.
After World War II (1939-1945), nationalist movements gained strength. From 1953 the protectorate was joined for ten years in a federation with Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe), called the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. However, this federation was heavily opposed by nationalists who advocated political freedom from British rule. Following the federation’s dissolution in 1963, Nyasaland achieved internal self-government, with Hastings Kamuzu Banda, leader of the Malawi Congress Party (MCP), as the first prime minister. The protectorate gained independence on July 6, 1964, under its new name, Malawi. It was declared a republic on July 6, 1966, and Prime Minister Banda was elected president by the National Assembly.
Under the Banda regime Malawi embarked on a vigorous program of economic development. In international affairs Banda held to a firm policy of neutrality in the dispute between the United Kingdom and the government of Rhodesia (known as Southern Rhodesia before 1964), maintaining extensive trade relations with Rhodesia’s rebellious white minority government. He also continued friendly relations with Mozambique (until 1975 governed by Portugal) and in 1967 signed a trade pact with South Africa.
In November 1970 the constitution of Malawi was amended to make Banda president for life, effective the following year. Maintaining good relations with then white-dominated South Africa, he became the first black African head of state to visit that country. His policy of cordiality toward South Africa brought serious criticism from the leaders of other black African countries, and the influence Banda could exert on continental affairs was minimal.
The first parliamentary elections since independence were held in 1978. Although only the MCP participated, a majority of the incumbent members were defeated; participation in the 1983, 1987, and 1992 elections was also restricted to the MCP. Malawi’s economy performed sluggishly in the early 1990s, burdened by foreign debt and by an influx of Mozambican refugees. Meanwhile, Banda faced rising domestic discontent and international criticism of his human rights record.
Change swept through the government in May 1994, as a new constitution was approved, followed by Malawi’s first multiparty elections. Bakili Muluzi, the leader of the United Democratic Front (UDF) and a former federal cabinet member, defeated Banda for the presidency and formed a UDF-dominated government. In keeping with the new constitution, which established a human rights commission, Muluzi freed political prisoners and closed three prisons where tortures were reputed to have taken place. In June 1999 presidential and legislative elections, Muluzi was reelected but the UDF failed to secure a majority in the National Assembly, winning just less than half the total seats. Muluzi stepped down in May 2004 after two terms in office, and voters elected Bingu wa Mutharika of the UDF as Malawi’s next president.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
I INTRODUCTION
Malawi, republic in southeastern Africa, formerly the British protectorate of Nyasaland, bounded on the north by Tanzania, on the east by Lake Malawi (Lake Nyasa), on the southeast and south by Mozambique, and on the west by Zambia. Malawi extends about 835 km (about 520 mi) north to south and varies in width from about 80 to 160 km (about 50 to 100 mi). The total area of the country is 118,484 sq km (45,747 sq mi), nearly one-fifth of which is water surface, mainly Lake Malawi and three smaller lakes. The capital of Malawi is Lilongwe, and the largest city is Blantyre.
II LAND AND RESOURCES
Part of the Great Rift Valley runs through Malawi from north to south. In this deep trough lies Lake Malawi, the third largest lake in Africa. The Shire River flows from the southern end of the lake to the Zambezi River in Mozambique. To the east and west of the Great Rift Valley the land rises to form high plateaus, generally about 900 to 1,200 m (about 3,000 to 4,000 ft) in elevation but reaching about 2,400 m (about 8,000 ft) in the Nyika uplands in the north. South of Lake Malawi lie the Shire Highlands, which rise to more than 2,700 m (9,000 ft). Sapitwa (Mount Mulanje), central Africa’s highest peak at 3,002 m (9,849 ft), is here.
A Climate
The climate in Malawi varies with the elevation. In the low-lying Shire Valley it is hot and humid, with temperatures averaging from 21°C (69°F) to 29°C (84°F) depending on the season. In the highlands the climate is more equable. The rainy season lasts from November to April. Annual rainfall averages about 2,300 mm (about 90 in) in the highlands and about 800 mm (about 30 in) in the lowlands.
B Natural Resources
The resources of Malawi are almost entirely agricultural. Mineral wealth is slight, although some marble, limestone, and coal are produced. A thin forest of small trees covers large parts of the country, and some timber trees grow in the damp ravines of the mountains and along the riverbanks. Baobab grow on the plains near Lake Malawi and in the southern valleys. Acacia and conifers grow in the highlands.
Animal life in Malawi includes elephants, rhinoceroses, giraffes, zebras, monkeys, and several varieties of antelope. Hippopotamuses inhabit the lake shores. Snakes and other reptiles, birds, and insects are plentiful, and the rivers and lakes abound in fish.
C Environmental Issues
Malawi is a very poor country that has a high population density and a high population growth rate. Most people depend on agriculture for their livelihoods, and traditional fuels, particularly fuelwood and charcoal, account for 89 percent (1997) of the country’s total energy use. The high population density and dependence on the land put great pressure on the environment for more farmland and fuelwood. Malawi has one of the highest rates of annual deforestation in Africa, at 0.9 percent (1990–2005).
Unsafe sewage disposal, agricultural runoff, and soil erosion due to deforestation combine to contaminate much of the country’s fresh water. Only 73 percent (2004) of the population has access to safe water. In addition, erosion causes siltation of rivers and streams, endangering fish populations.
Nevertheless, Malawi has a rich and diverse wildlife population, and about 29 percent (2005) of the country’s total land area remains forested. Experts believe that Lake Malawi has more endemic species of fish than any other lake in the world. Of the country’s total land area, 16.4 percent (2007) is designated protected. Lake Malawi National Park, at the southern end of the lake, was declared a World Heritage Site in 1984. Poaching continues to be a problem in the protected areas, however. The government has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to biodiversity, climate change, desertification, endangered species, environmental modification, hazardous wastes, marine life conservation, ozone layer protection, and wetlands.
III POPULATION
More than 99 percent of the people of Malawi are black Africans. Principal ethnic groups include the Chewa, who constitute 90 percent of the population of the central region; the Nyanja, who predominate in the south; the Tumbuka, who predominate in the north; the Ngoni, an offshoot of the Zulu, who settled in the lower northern and lower central regions in the 1800s; and the Yao, who are mostly Muslim and live along the southeastern border. The rest of the inhabitants, principally settlers of British and Indian origin, form less than one-half of 1 percent of the population. Some 83 percent of the people live in rural villages.
A Population Characteristics
The population of Malawi is 13,931,831 (2008 estimate). The country has an overall population density of 148 persons per sq km (384 per sq mi), one of the highest in Africa.
B Political Divisions and Principal Cities
Malawi is divided into 3 regions and 24 districts. The largest city is Blantyre (population, 1998, 502,053). The capital, since 1975, is Lilongwe (587,000).
C Religion and Language
Christians make up 76 percent of the inhabitants of Malawi. Another 15 percent are Muslim, and 8 percent practice traditional religions. English is Malawi’s official language and is the primary language of instruction in the schools. Chichewa, a Bantu language, is the national language, and a number of other Bantu languages are widely spoken.
D Education
In the early 1990s about 1.4 million students attended primary schools. However, after the government made primary education in Malawi free, enrollment increased dramatically. In the 2000 school year 2.7 million students attended 4,841 primary schools. In an effort to reduce overcrowding, the government has recruited more than 20,000 new teachers. Enrollment in secondary schools remains low, however, with only 33 percent of secondary school-aged children attending. The University of Malawi at Zomba (founded in 1964) and its affiliated institutions had 4,600 students in 2002–2003.
IV ECONOMY
Malawi is primarily an agricultural country, with 54 percent of its working force engaged in farming, fishing, and forestry. The nation has traditionally been self-sufficient in food, but malnutrition among children was a serious problem as the 1990s began. The principal crops are corn, sugarcane, fruits, vegetables, and peanuts. Major exports include tobacco, tea, sugar, and peanuts. A growing fishing industry, producing for domestic needs, is centered at Nkhotakota on the western shore of Lake Malawi. In 2005 the catch was 59,595 metric tons. Major manufactures, principally for domestic consumption, include processed food, chemical products, textiles, and beverages. The national budget for 1992 included revenues of $416 million and expenditures of $498 million. Many Malawians work as migratory laborers in South Africa and other countries.
A Energy
Some 98 percent of Malawi’s electricity is produced by hydroelectric facilities. In 2003 Malawi generated 1,296 million kilowatt-hours of electricity.
B Currency and Foreign Trade
The unit of currency in Malawi is the kwacha, consisting of 100 tambala (136 kwacha equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). Currency is issued by the Reserve Bank of Malawi, established in 1965.
In 2003 the value of exports was $457 million. Imports, which typically consist of manufactured goods, fertilizers, machinery, motor vehicles, textiles, and petroleum, were valued at $724 million. Malawi’s principal trading partners for exports are South Africa, Germany, Japan, the United States, and Mozambique; chief partners for imports are South Africa, Germany, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
C Transportation and Communications
With the completion of a line from Salima to Mchinji on the Zambian border in 1980, Malawi owns 797 km (495 mi) of operated railroad track. Total road mileage in 2003 was 15,451 km (9,601 mi), of which only a small portion was paved or gravel surfaced. Passenger and freight traffic on Lake Malawi is extensive. Air Malawi provides domestic as well as international service.
In 2004 Malawi had 2 daily newspapers, with a combined circulation of 25,000. The Daily Times, published in Blantyre, is the most widely read daily newspaper. The government operates the postal and telegraph service. Radio transmitters are located in Blantyre and Lilongwe. The country has an estimated 8 telephone mainlines and 501 radios for every 1,000 inhabitants.
V GOVERNMENT
Under the country’s latest constitution, which went into effect in 1995, Malawi is a republic with an elected president, who is both the head of government and the head of state. Cabinet ministers are responsible to the president, who is elected to a five-year term by universal adult suffrage.
A Legislature
The parliament of Malawi is the unicameral National Assembly, made up of 193 members who are popularly elected to terms of up to five years, with additional members nominated by the president. The Malawi Congress Party (MCP) was the sole legal political party from 1966 until 1993; the first multiparty elections were held in 1994. The MCP and the United Democratic Front (UDF) hold most of the seats in parliament.
B Judiciary and Local Government
The judicial system comprises a Supreme Court of Appeal, a High Court, magistrates’ courts, and local courts. The high court has unlimited jurisdiction in all civil and criminal cases and hears appeals from lower courts. Popularly elected councils in Malawi’s 24 districts and 8 municipalities are responsible for all government services within their areas.
C Defense
In 2004 the total strength of Malawi’s armed forces was 5,300. In addition, the country had a paramilitary national police force of 1,000 members.
VI HISTORY
Some evidence of Stone Age and later Iron Age settlements has been found around Lake Malawi. Bantu peoples moved into the territory in the 1st millennium ad. By the 16th century a Malawi kingdom, from which the present name of the country is derived, had a prospering trade with the coastal areas of Mozambique.
Jesuit missionaries from Portugal visited the territory near Lake Malawi as early as the 17th century, but the lake probably was not known to Europeans until Scottish missionary and explorer David Livingstone reached its shores in 1859. European involvement began in 1875 and 1876, when Scottish church missions were established; a British consul was stationed in the country in 1883. Subsequent warfare with Arab slave traders and fear of Portuguese expansion from Mozambique led to a mission by British explorer and colonial official Harry Johnston, who negotiated treaties with the indigenous rulers. In 1891 the treaties resulted in a formal declaration of a British protectorate, called the Nyasaland Districts Protectorate. Beginning in 1893, it was known as the British Central Africa Protectorate, and in 1907 the area was officially designated the Nyasaland Protectorate. In 1915 John Chilembwe, an African preacher, staged a short, bloody uprising in response to the treatment of Africans by British colonists. The uprising is considered a forerunner of later nationalist movements.
After World War II (1939-1945), nationalist movements gained strength. From 1953 the protectorate was joined for ten years in a federation with Northern Rhodesia and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe), called the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. However, this federation was heavily opposed by nationalists who advocated political freedom from British rule. Following the federation’s dissolution in 1963, Nyasaland achieved internal self-government, with Hastings Kamuzu Banda, leader of the Malawi Congress Party (MCP), as the first prime minister. The protectorate gained independence on July 6, 1964, under its new name, Malawi. It was declared a republic on July 6, 1966, and Prime Minister Banda was elected president by the National Assembly.
Under the Banda regime Malawi embarked on a vigorous program of economic development. In international affairs Banda held to a firm policy of neutrality in the dispute between the United Kingdom and the government of Rhodesia (known as Southern Rhodesia before 1964), maintaining extensive trade relations with Rhodesia’s rebellious white minority government. He also continued friendly relations with Mozambique (until 1975 governed by Portugal) and in 1967 signed a trade pact with South Africa.
In November 1970 the constitution of Malawi was amended to make Banda president for life, effective the following year. Maintaining good relations with then white-dominated South Africa, he became the first black African head of state to visit that country. His policy of cordiality toward South Africa brought serious criticism from the leaders of other black African countries, and the influence Banda could exert on continental affairs was minimal.
The first parliamentary elections since independence were held in 1978. Although only the MCP participated, a majority of the incumbent members were defeated; participation in the 1983, 1987, and 1992 elections was also restricted to the MCP. Malawi’s economy performed sluggishly in the early 1990s, burdened by foreign debt and by an influx of Mozambican refugees. Meanwhile, Banda faced rising domestic discontent and international criticism of his human rights record.
Change swept through the government in May 1994, as a new constitution was approved, followed by Malawi’s first multiparty elections. Bakili Muluzi, the leader of the United Democratic Front (UDF) and a former federal cabinet member, defeated Banda for the presidency and formed a UDF-dominated government. In keeping with the new constitution, which established a human rights commission, Muluzi freed political prisoners and closed three prisons where tortures were reputed to have taken place. In June 1999 presidential and legislative elections, Muluzi was reelected but the UDF failed to secure a majority in the National Assembly, winning just less than half the total seats. Muluzi stepped down in May 2004 after two terms in office, and voters elected Bingu wa Mutharika of the UDF as Malawi’s next president.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
MADAGASCAR
Madagascar
I INTRODUCTION
Madagascar, island nation in the Indian Ocean, separated from the southeastern coast of Africa by the Mozambique Channel. Madagascar is made up of Madagascar Island, the fourth largest island in the world, and several small islands. Madagascar was annexed by France in 1896 and gained full independence in 1960. The country’s area totals 587,041 sq km (226,658 sq mi). Antananarivo is the capital and largest city.
II LAND AND RESOURCES
A central mountainous plateau dominates the island of Madagascar. Partly volcanic in origin, the uplands rise to 2,876 m (9,436 ft) atop Maromokotro in the north. The massive Ankaratra Mountains, near the city of Antananarivo, attain an elevation of 2,643 m (8,671 ft). The land slopes steeply to a narrow lowland bordering the Indian Ocean in the east and to a somewhat wider coastal plain along the Mozambique Channel in the west.
The country’s best soil is found along the coast and in river valleys of the central plateau. The island’s soils are rich in iron and therefore red in color. The pervasive color of the bare earth and of the rivers that wash through the interior has given Madagascar the nickname Great Red Island.
A Rivers and Lakes
The major rivers of Madagascar are the Betsiboka, Tsiribihina, Mangoky, and Onilahy; all rise in the uplands near the eastern coast and flow west to the Mozambique Channel through fertile valleys. By contrast, rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean are short and swift, frequently plunging from the uplands in waterfalls. The largest lake is Alaotra, near Toamasina.
B Climate
The eastern part of Madagascar receives much rain, brought onshore by southeastern trade winds, which are forced to rise and drop moisture as they meet the eastern escarpment; annual precipitation in some places exceeds 3,050 mm (120 in). The central plateau gets considerably less moisture, and arid areas in the south and southwest receive less than 380 mm (less than 15 in) of precipitation per year. Most of the rain falls from November to April. The coastal regions generally are hot throughout the year. The central plateau has a temperate climate, with warm summers and cool winters. The average temperature range in Antananarivo on the plateau is 16° to 26°C (61° to 79°F) in January and 9° to 20°C (48° to 68°F) in July.
C Vegetation and Animal Life
Tropical rain forests containing valuable hardwoods (including rosewood, ebony, and raffia palm) are common in eastern Madagascar. The coconut palm is extensively cultivated in the lowlands. The eastern coastal lagoons and lower river valleys in the west are fringed with mangroves. Savanna woodland and grasslands predominate in the drier western regions, and desert vegetation occurs in the extreme southwest.
Madagascar’s animal life is unusual. There are no large mammal species except those brought to the island by humans. Lemurs, a primitive family of primate, are found chiefly in Madagascar. There is an abundance of reptiles, including crocodiles, lizards, and chameleons. Insect life is as varied as it is distinctive; the variety and rarity of the island’s butterflies are unique. Although native species exhibit characteristics of both African and Indian animal life, their differences indicate they evolved on Madagascar during a long period of isolation. An estimated 90 percent of the species inhabiting its tropical forests are endemic, meaning that they are found nowhere else in the world.
D Mineral Resources
Madagascar has abundant mineral reserves, although many have yet to be exploited. Chromite, graphite, mica, and gemstones such as sapphire, topaz, and garnet are currently mined. The island also contains valuable deposits of bauxite, ilmenite (a titanium ore), and coal.
E Environmental Issues
Madagascar’s growing population has put increased pressures on the environment. The timber industry is less of a threat to the island’s forests than slash-and-burn agriculture and reliance on fuelwood for energy. The country suffers an annual deforestation rate of 0.4 percent (1990–2005). In 2005, 22 percent of Madagascar’s total land area was forested.
Inadequate sewage disposal, as well as soil erosion caused by deforestation, has led to surface water pollution. Only 50 percent (2004) of the population has access to safe water, and only 34 percent has access to sanitation.
However, the country has a long history of conservation. Efforts are under way to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas. The government has protected 2.6 percent (2007) of the country’s total land area in national parks and reserves.
III POPULATION
Madagascar has an ethnically diverse population of 20,042,551 (2008 estimate). The number of inhabitants was growing at an annual rate of 3 percent in 2008. The average population density is 35 persons per sq km (89 per sq mi), with upland areas more densely populated than coastal regions.
Only 27 percent of the population is classified as urban. Antananarivo, the capital, is the largest city, with a population (2003) of 1,678,000. Other important urban centers are Toamasina (137,782), Mahajanga (106,780), Fianarantsoa (109,248), Toliara (1993, 80,826), and Antsiraana (59,040).
Major ethnic groups in the interior are the Merina (Hova), who make up about 27 percent of the total population, and the related Betsileo (12 percent). Members of both groups are descended primarily from people who emigrated from Indonesia by ad 900. Coastal areas are inhabited mainly by peoples of mixed Malayo-Indonesian, black African, and Arab ancestry; among these ethnic groups are the Betsimisaraka (15 percent), Tsimihety (7 percent), Sakalava (6 percent), and Antaisaka (5 percent).
A Language and Religion
The official languages of Madagascar are the Merina dialect of Malagasy (a language of Malayo-Indonesian origin), French, and English. Approximately 48 percent of the population follows traditional Malagasy beliefs, recognizing an omnipotent deity and secondary divinities, the latter including the earliest inhabitants of the island, legendary kings and queens, and other great ancestors. There is a universal cult of ancestors and a tradition of lavish funerals and elaborate rituals surrounding the dead. About 49 percent of the population adheres to Christianity and 2 percent to Islam.
B Education
Education is compulsory from ages 6 to 14. Virtually all primary school-aged children were enrolled in school in 2002–2003, but only 14 percent of secondary school-aged children were in school. In 2000 the adult literacy rate was 66.5 percent. Institutions of higher education include the University of Antananarivo (1961), the University of Toamasina (1977), and the University of Fianarantsoa (1988).
C Cultural Institutions
Leading libraries with collections of Malagasy history, literature, culture, and arts are the National Library (1961) in Antananarivo and the University of Antananarivo Library (1961). The Historical Museum (1897) in Antananarivo and the University of Antananarivo Museum of Art and Archaeology (1970) are the chief museums.
IV ECONOMY
Madagascar is one of the world’s poorest countries, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $5.5 billion, or $287 per person, in 2006. The economy remains, as in colonial times, predominantly agricultural, with 78 percent of the labor force engaged in agricultural activities. During the 1980s and late 1990s the agricultural sector was hurt by frequent cyclones. Strikes and political instability also limited economic growth in the 1990s and early 21st century. The government’s budget in 2006 included revenues of $3,214 million and expenditures of $3,198 million.
A Agriculture
Because of the mountainous terrain, only 5 percent of Madagascar is farmed. The chief food crop is rice, which is grown on about one-half of the agricultural land. Since the early 1970s imports of this staple food have been necessary to meet needs. Other important food crops are cassava, sweet potatoes, corn, beans, and bananas. Leading cash crops are coffee, vanilla, and cloves. Other important crops are sugarcane, cotton, sisal, and tropical fruits. Cattle are the main livestock raised in Madagascar.
B Forestry and Fishing
In 2006 some 11.5 million cu m (407 million cu ft) of timber was cut, most of it for local use as fuel. Efforts are under way to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas. The fishing industry is expanding, and shrimp, lobsters, and fish products have become significant sources of export revenue. Madagascar allows other countries to fish in its exclusive maritime zone in exchange for compensation.
C Mining and Manufacturing
Mineral products of Madagascar include chromite, mica, graphite, salt, and various gemstones. Food processing (meat packing, brewing, and sugar refining) is the leading manufacturing industry. Other manufactures include refined petroleum, textiles, soap, cement, cigarettes, and paper.
D Energy
Madagascar’s people rely on traditional fuels such as wood and charcoal for 84 percent (1997) of their energy needs. In 2003 Madagascar produced 825 million kilowatt-hours of electricity. Some 66 percent of all electricity is produced in hydroelectric facilities.
E Foreign Trade
Madagascar usually has a negative trade balance. In 2003 imports were valued at $1,091 million and exports at $766 million. Foods such as coffee, cloves, vanilla, fruit, and shrimp accounted for 55 percent of export revenue in 2003. Other important exports were fabrics, gemstones, chromite, and refined petroleum. Leading imports were petroleum, foodstuffs, chemical products, machinery, vehicles and vehicle parts, and electrical equipment. France is by far the leading trading partner, accounting for about one-quarter of Madagascar’s trading activity. Other significant purchasers of the country’s exports are the United States, Singapore, Germany, and Mauritius; chief sources of imports in addition to France are the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, China, and South Africa.
F Currency and Banking
The Malagasy franc, divided into 100 centimes, is the currency unit (2,142 Malagasy francs equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). The Central Bank of Madagascar (founded 1973) is the bank of issue. All banks were nationalized in 1975 but reopened to private and foreign investment beginning in the late 1980s.
G Transportation
Antananarivo is the main hub of Madagascar’s limited transportation system. Only about 12 percent (1999) of the country’s roads are paved. Toamasina, the chief port, handles about 70 percent of the nation’s foreign trade. Other port cities are Mahajanga, Toliara, and Antsiraana. Madagascar has four major airports, including the international airport at Antananarivo. Air Madagascar is the national airline.
H Communications
Until 1990 the state owned all broadcasting operations in Madagascar. That year the state monopoly was abolished by legislation that opened the industry to private stations working in partnership with the government. State restrictions on publishing were also lifted in the early 1990s. The daily newspapers published in Antananarivo include Gazetiko (written in Malagasy), La Gazette de la Grande Ile (French), and Midi Madagasikara (French and Malagasy).
V GOVERNMENT
In 1993 Madagascar replaced its single-party socialist system with a multiparty democracy under terms of a new constitution adopted the year before. The country is divided into six provinces, which are subdivided into regions, departments, and communes.
A Executive
According to the 1992 constitution, the head of state is the president, elected by the voters to a five-year term. The president appoints a prime minister, who holds executive power.
B Legislature
Madagascar’s bicameral (two-chamber) legislature is composed of a National Assembly and a Senate. The National Assembly’s 160 members are directly elected to four-year terms. Of the 90 Senate members, 60 are selected by an electoral college of provincial representatives and 30 are appointed by the president, all to four-year terms.
C Judiciary
The judicial system is modeled on that of France. It includes a High Constitutional Court; a Supreme Court; a Court of Appeal; 11 courts of first instance; and special economic and criminal tribunals.
D Political Parties
The National Front for the Defense of the Madagascar Socialist Revolution was Madagascar’s only permitted political organization from 1975 to 1990. Legislation approved that year allowed the resumption of multiparty political activity, resulting in the formation of more than 120 parties. Leading political organizations include Tiako I Madagasikara (I Love Madagascar), Association pour la Renaissance de Madagascar (Association for the Rebirth of Madagascar), and Ny Asa Vita No Ifampitsara (People Are Judged by the Work They Do).
E Defense
Madagascar has a 13,500-member military, with 12,500 of those personnel in the army. An 8,000-member gendarmerie performs paramilitary functions.
F International Organizations
Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, and several other international organizations. It is a signatory of the Lomé Convention, an agreement on cooperation between what is now the European Union and 70 developing countries.
VI HISTORY
The people of Madagascar are believed to be descended from Indonesians and Africans who reached the island in ancient times. Diogo Dias, a Portuguese sea captain bound for India in 1500, was the first European to sight the island. During the 17th century the Portuguese, the English, and the French successively and unsuccessfully attempted to colonize Madagascar.
A French Encroachment
The French gained a temporary foothold on the island in 1642 but were driven out in 1674. They finally acquired a few trading bases along the east coast in the following century. Their sphere of influence was restricted, however, as a result of the rise of a powerful monarchy among the Merina, a people of Malay origin in the central plateau. From 1810 to 1828, during the reign of the Merina king Radama I, who was hostile to the French, the British gained influence. British officers trained Merina troops, and British missionaries introduced schools and Christianity. Following the death of Radama, a strong reaction against European culture developed. Reforms were abolished, the missionaries were persecuted, and trade relations with Britain were severed. On the accession of Radama II (in 1861), a generally progressive ruler, some of the early reforms were reinstituted. Radama II, who was friendly to the French, was subsequently murdered by the conservative faction at the Merina court. A protracted period of strained relations and recurrent hostilities with the French culminated in 1895 in submission by the reigning monarch, Queen Ranavalona III. In 1896, as a result of popular uprisings, Madagascar was proclaimed a colony of France; military rule was instituted, and the queen was exiled.
Various reforms and improvements were introduced in Madagascar during the following decades, but discontent with French rule gradually assumed serious proportions. In 1916 a secret nationalist society was outlawed, and hundreds of its members were jailed.
In May 1942, two years after the fall of France in World War II, the British government, fearful that the Japanese would seize Madagascar, dispatched an expeditionary force to the island. In 1943 the British surrendered control to the Free French government. The postwar period was marked by a resumption of nationalist agitation.
B Movement Toward Independence
Under the provisions of the French constitution of 1946, Madagascar and some dependencies became an overseas territory of France. The constitution established elective Madagascan provincial assemblies with limited powers. In March 1947, nationalists in east Madagascar began an armed revolt against the French that was not suppressed until August. After the revolt the government emphasized efforts to improve the economy by extending the road system and by exploiting coal deposits more systematically.
During the 1950s France took measures to increase self-government on the island. Elections held in 1951, 1952, and 1957 generally favored those who advocated gradual attainment of independence. The constitution of the Fifth Republic of France was approved by 78 percent of the Madagascan electorate in a referendum held on September 28, 1958. A subsequent congress of the members of the provincial councils proclaimed Madagascar, renamed the Malagasy Republic, a semiautonomous member of the French Community. Philibert Tsiranana, leader of the Social Democratic Party, was inaugurated as president and head of state on November 1. On June 26, 1960, the republic became fully autonomous while retaining a cordial association with France. In September it was admitted to the United Nations.
C Ratsiraka’s Rule
After a decade of political stability, Malagasy underwent serious unrest in the early 1970s, although Tsiranana was reelected for the second time in January 1972. In the spring, however, a student strike grew into general rioting, and Tsiranana was forced to turn power over to the army chief of staff, General Gabriel Ramanantsoa. Ramanantsoa was ousted by other elements of the military in early 1975; in June, Lieutenant Commander Didier Ratsiraka was named head of state. On December 30, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and on January 4, 1976, Ratsiraka began a seven-year term as president.
Economic pressures in the late 1970s added to political unrest, to which the government responded with a series of alerts and arrests; alleged antigovernment plots were reported in 1977, 1980, and 1982. Reelected in November 1982 and March 1989, Ratsiraka suppressed another coup attempt in May 1990. After massive antigovernment demonstrations, he promised in August 1991 to institute democratic reforms; a transitional government took office in November, and a new constitution was approved by popular referendum in August 1992. Albert Zafy defeated Ratsiraka in a presidential runoff election in February 1993.
The transition to civilian rule was marked by opposition from troops loyal to Ratsiraka and by conflicts with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) regarding the exchange rate of the Malagasy franc. In September 1996 the National Assembly impeached Zafy for, among other things, failing to reach an agreement with the IMF. Zafy officially stepped down in October, and new presidential elections were held in December. Ratsiraka defeated Zafy and was proclaimed president once again in January 1997.
D Recent Developments
Ratsiraka also struggled with the IMF, and delays in obtaining IMF relief funds led to an erosion of support for his administration. In December 2001 presidential elections Ratsiraka finished second to Marc Ravalomanana, the popular mayor of Antananarivo and a self-made multimillionaire. However, because the vote count showed that neither candidate received more than 50 percent of the vote, a runoff election was required. But Ravalomanana rejected the results of the vote count, claiming to have won more than 50 percent of the vote. Backed by the overwhelming support of Antananarivo residents, he had himself sworn in as president in February 2002. Ratsiraka refused to step down, demanding that the runoff election take place. Supported by rural and coastal provinces, Ratsiraka established a rival government at the port city of Toamasina. Madagascar’s High Constitutional Court conducted a recount and in April declared Ravalomanana the rightful winner with more than 51 percent of the vote. Most of the international community recognized Ravalomanana’s presidency over the subsequent months. Ratsiraka fled Madagascar for France in July.
Ravalomanana’s party, Tiako I Madagasikara (“I Love Madagascar”), easily won parliamentary elections in December 2002. The new government’s priorities included improving the country’s infrastructure (especially the paving of roads), expanding education and health services, and fighting corruption. Imposing businesslike objectives for government ministers, Ravalomanana successfully encouraged international aid and investment in Madagascar. Although opponents accused Ravalomanana of using his position to further his own business interests, he remained popular. Ravalomanana was reelected to a second five-year term in December 2006, winning nearly 55 percent of the vote.
In a referendum held in April 2007, voters approved constitutional changes giving more powers to the president. The expanded powers included the authority to make laws directly during a president-imposed state of emergency. Ravalomanana’s party won by a landslide in parliamentary elections held in September 2007.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
I INTRODUCTION
Madagascar, island nation in the Indian Ocean, separated from the southeastern coast of Africa by the Mozambique Channel. Madagascar is made up of Madagascar Island, the fourth largest island in the world, and several small islands. Madagascar was annexed by France in 1896 and gained full independence in 1960. The country’s area totals 587,041 sq km (226,658 sq mi). Antananarivo is the capital and largest city.
II LAND AND RESOURCES
A central mountainous plateau dominates the island of Madagascar. Partly volcanic in origin, the uplands rise to 2,876 m (9,436 ft) atop Maromokotro in the north. The massive Ankaratra Mountains, near the city of Antananarivo, attain an elevation of 2,643 m (8,671 ft). The land slopes steeply to a narrow lowland bordering the Indian Ocean in the east and to a somewhat wider coastal plain along the Mozambique Channel in the west.
The country’s best soil is found along the coast and in river valleys of the central plateau. The island’s soils are rich in iron and therefore red in color. The pervasive color of the bare earth and of the rivers that wash through the interior has given Madagascar the nickname Great Red Island.
A Rivers and Lakes
The major rivers of Madagascar are the Betsiboka, Tsiribihina, Mangoky, and Onilahy; all rise in the uplands near the eastern coast and flow west to the Mozambique Channel through fertile valleys. By contrast, rivers flowing to the Indian Ocean are short and swift, frequently plunging from the uplands in waterfalls. The largest lake is Alaotra, near Toamasina.
B Climate
The eastern part of Madagascar receives much rain, brought onshore by southeastern trade winds, which are forced to rise and drop moisture as they meet the eastern escarpment; annual precipitation in some places exceeds 3,050 mm (120 in). The central plateau gets considerably less moisture, and arid areas in the south and southwest receive less than 380 mm (less than 15 in) of precipitation per year. Most of the rain falls from November to April. The coastal regions generally are hot throughout the year. The central plateau has a temperate climate, with warm summers and cool winters. The average temperature range in Antananarivo on the plateau is 16° to 26°C (61° to 79°F) in January and 9° to 20°C (48° to 68°F) in July.
C Vegetation and Animal Life
Tropical rain forests containing valuable hardwoods (including rosewood, ebony, and raffia palm) are common in eastern Madagascar. The coconut palm is extensively cultivated in the lowlands. The eastern coastal lagoons and lower river valleys in the west are fringed with mangroves. Savanna woodland and grasslands predominate in the drier western regions, and desert vegetation occurs in the extreme southwest.
Madagascar’s animal life is unusual. There are no large mammal species except those brought to the island by humans. Lemurs, a primitive family of primate, are found chiefly in Madagascar. There is an abundance of reptiles, including crocodiles, lizards, and chameleons. Insect life is as varied as it is distinctive; the variety and rarity of the island’s butterflies are unique. Although native species exhibit characteristics of both African and Indian animal life, their differences indicate they evolved on Madagascar during a long period of isolation. An estimated 90 percent of the species inhabiting its tropical forests are endemic, meaning that they are found nowhere else in the world.
D Mineral Resources
Madagascar has abundant mineral reserves, although many have yet to be exploited. Chromite, graphite, mica, and gemstones such as sapphire, topaz, and garnet are currently mined. The island also contains valuable deposits of bauxite, ilmenite (a titanium ore), and coal.
E Environmental Issues
Madagascar’s growing population has put increased pressures on the environment. The timber industry is less of a threat to the island’s forests than slash-and-burn agriculture and reliance on fuelwood for energy. The country suffers an annual deforestation rate of 0.4 percent (1990–2005). In 2005, 22 percent of Madagascar’s total land area was forested.
Inadequate sewage disposal, as well as soil erosion caused by deforestation, has led to surface water pollution. Only 50 percent (2004) of the population has access to safe water, and only 34 percent has access to sanitation.
However, the country has a long history of conservation. Efforts are under way to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas. The government has protected 2.6 percent (2007) of the country’s total land area in national parks and reserves.
III POPULATION
Madagascar has an ethnically diverse population of 20,042,551 (2008 estimate). The number of inhabitants was growing at an annual rate of 3 percent in 2008. The average population density is 35 persons per sq km (89 per sq mi), with upland areas more densely populated than coastal regions.
Only 27 percent of the population is classified as urban. Antananarivo, the capital, is the largest city, with a population (2003) of 1,678,000. Other important urban centers are Toamasina (137,782), Mahajanga (106,780), Fianarantsoa (109,248), Toliara (1993, 80,826), and Antsiraana (59,040).
Major ethnic groups in the interior are the Merina (Hova), who make up about 27 percent of the total population, and the related Betsileo (12 percent). Members of both groups are descended primarily from people who emigrated from Indonesia by ad 900. Coastal areas are inhabited mainly by peoples of mixed Malayo-Indonesian, black African, and Arab ancestry; among these ethnic groups are the Betsimisaraka (15 percent), Tsimihety (7 percent), Sakalava (6 percent), and Antaisaka (5 percent).
A Language and Religion
The official languages of Madagascar are the Merina dialect of Malagasy (a language of Malayo-Indonesian origin), French, and English. Approximately 48 percent of the population follows traditional Malagasy beliefs, recognizing an omnipotent deity and secondary divinities, the latter including the earliest inhabitants of the island, legendary kings and queens, and other great ancestors. There is a universal cult of ancestors and a tradition of lavish funerals and elaborate rituals surrounding the dead. About 49 percent of the population adheres to Christianity and 2 percent to Islam.
B Education
Education is compulsory from ages 6 to 14. Virtually all primary school-aged children were enrolled in school in 2002–2003, but only 14 percent of secondary school-aged children were in school. In 2000 the adult literacy rate was 66.5 percent. Institutions of higher education include the University of Antananarivo (1961), the University of Toamasina (1977), and the University of Fianarantsoa (1988).
C Cultural Institutions
Leading libraries with collections of Malagasy history, literature, culture, and arts are the National Library (1961) in Antananarivo and the University of Antananarivo Library (1961). The Historical Museum (1897) in Antananarivo and the University of Antananarivo Museum of Art and Archaeology (1970) are the chief museums.
IV ECONOMY
Madagascar is one of the world’s poorest countries, with a gross domestic product (GDP) of $5.5 billion, or $287 per person, in 2006. The economy remains, as in colonial times, predominantly agricultural, with 78 percent of the labor force engaged in agricultural activities. During the 1980s and late 1990s the agricultural sector was hurt by frequent cyclones. Strikes and political instability also limited economic growth in the 1990s and early 21st century. The government’s budget in 2006 included revenues of $3,214 million and expenditures of $3,198 million.
A Agriculture
Because of the mountainous terrain, only 5 percent of Madagascar is farmed. The chief food crop is rice, which is grown on about one-half of the agricultural land. Since the early 1970s imports of this staple food have been necessary to meet needs. Other important food crops are cassava, sweet potatoes, corn, beans, and bananas. Leading cash crops are coffee, vanilla, and cloves. Other important crops are sugarcane, cotton, sisal, and tropical fruits. Cattle are the main livestock raised in Madagascar.
B Forestry and Fishing
In 2006 some 11.5 million cu m (407 million cu ft) of timber was cut, most of it for local use as fuel. Efforts are under way to increase wood supplies by reforesting eroded upland areas. The fishing industry is expanding, and shrimp, lobsters, and fish products have become significant sources of export revenue. Madagascar allows other countries to fish in its exclusive maritime zone in exchange for compensation.
C Mining and Manufacturing
Mineral products of Madagascar include chromite, mica, graphite, salt, and various gemstones. Food processing (meat packing, brewing, and sugar refining) is the leading manufacturing industry. Other manufactures include refined petroleum, textiles, soap, cement, cigarettes, and paper.
D Energy
Madagascar’s people rely on traditional fuels such as wood and charcoal for 84 percent (1997) of their energy needs. In 2003 Madagascar produced 825 million kilowatt-hours of electricity. Some 66 percent of all electricity is produced in hydroelectric facilities.
E Foreign Trade
Madagascar usually has a negative trade balance. In 2003 imports were valued at $1,091 million and exports at $766 million. Foods such as coffee, cloves, vanilla, fruit, and shrimp accounted for 55 percent of export revenue in 2003. Other important exports were fabrics, gemstones, chromite, and refined petroleum. Leading imports were petroleum, foodstuffs, chemical products, machinery, vehicles and vehicle parts, and electrical equipment. France is by far the leading trading partner, accounting for about one-quarter of Madagascar’s trading activity. Other significant purchasers of the country’s exports are the United States, Singapore, Germany, and Mauritius; chief sources of imports in addition to France are the United Arab Emirates, Bahrain, China, and South Africa.
F Currency and Banking
The Malagasy franc, divided into 100 centimes, is the currency unit (2,142 Malagasy francs equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). The Central Bank of Madagascar (founded 1973) is the bank of issue. All banks were nationalized in 1975 but reopened to private and foreign investment beginning in the late 1980s.
G Transportation
Antananarivo is the main hub of Madagascar’s limited transportation system. Only about 12 percent (1999) of the country’s roads are paved. Toamasina, the chief port, handles about 70 percent of the nation’s foreign trade. Other port cities are Mahajanga, Toliara, and Antsiraana. Madagascar has four major airports, including the international airport at Antananarivo. Air Madagascar is the national airline.
H Communications
Until 1990 the state owned all broadcasting operations in Madagascar. That year the state monopoly was abolished by legislation that opened the industry to private stations working in partnership with the government. State restrictions on publishing were also lifted in the early 1990s. The daily newspapers published in Antananarivo include Gazetiko (written in Malagasy), La Gazette de la Grande Ile (French), and Midi Madagasikara (French and Malagasy).
V GOVERNMENT
In 1993 Madagascar replaced its single-party socialist system with a multiparty democracy under terms of a new constitution adopted the year before. The country is divided into six provinces, which are subdivided into regions, departments, and communes.
A Executive
According to the 1992 constitution, the head of state is the president, elected by the voters to a five-year term. The president appoints a prime minister, who holds executive power.
B Legislature
Madagascar’s bicameral (two-chamber) legislature is composed of a National Assembly and a Senate. The National Assembly’s 160 members are directly elected to four-year terms. Of the 90 Senate members, 60 are selected by an electoral college of provincial representatives and 30 are appointed by the president, all to four-year terms.
C Judiciary
The judicial system is modeled on that of France. It includes a High Constitutional Court; a Supreme Court; a Court of Appeal; 11 courts of first instance; and special economic and criminal tribunals.
D Political Parties
The National Front for the Defense of the Madagascar Socialist Revolution was Madagascar’s only permitted political organization from 1975 to 1990. Legislation approved that year allowed the resumption of multiparty political activity, resulting in the formation of more than 120 parties. Leading political organizations include Tiako I Madagasikara (I Love Madagascar), Association pour la Renaissance de Madagascar (Association for the Rebirth of Madagascar), and Ny Asa Vita No Ifampitsara (People Are Judged by the Work They Do).
E Defense
Madagascar has a 13,500-member military, with 12,500 of those personnel in the army. An 8,000-member gendarmerie performs paramilitary functions.
F International Organizations
Madagascar is a member of the United Nations, the African Union, and several other international organizations. It is a signatory of the Lomé Convention, an agreement on cooperation between what is now the European Union and 70 developing countries.
VI HISTORY
The people of Madagascar are believed to be descended from Indonesians and Africans who reached the island in ancient times. Diogo Dias, a Portuguese sea captain bound for India in 1500, was the first European to sight the island. During the 17th century the Portuguese, the English, and the French successively and unsuccessfully attempted to colonize Madagascar.
A French Encroachment
The French gained a temporary foothold on the island in 1642 but were driven out in 1674. They finally acquired a few trading bases along the east coast in the following century. Their sphere of influence was restricted, however, as a result of the rise of a powerful monarchy among the Merina, a people of Malay origin in the central plateau. From 1810 to 1828, during the reign of the Merina king Radama I, who was hostile to the French, the British gained influence. British officers trained Merina troops, and British missionaries introduced schools and Christianity. Following the death of Radama, a strong reaction against European culture developed. Reforms were abolished, the missionaries were persecuted, and trade relations with Britain were severed. On the accession of Radama II (in 1861), a generally progressive ruler, some of the early reforms were reinstituted. Radama II, who was friendly to the French, was subsequently murdered by the conservative faction at the Merina court. A protracted period of strained relations and recurrent hostilities with the French culminated in 1895 in submission by the reigning monarch, Queen Ranavalona III. In 1896, as a result of popular uprisings, Madagascar was proclaimed a colony of France; military rule was instituted, and the queen was exiled.
Various reforms and improvements were introduced in Madagascar during the following decades, but discontent with French rule gradually assumed serious proportions. In 1916 a secret nationalist society was outlawed, and hundreds of its members were jailed.
In May 1942, two years after the fall of France in World War II, the British government, fearful that the Japanese would seize Madagascar, dispatched an expeditionary force to the island. In 1943 the British surrendered control to the Free French government. The postwar period was marked by a resumption of nationalist agitation.
B Movement Toward Independence
Under the provisions of the French constitution of 1946, Madagascar and some dependencies became an overseas territory of France. The constitution established elective Madagascan provincial assemblies with limited powers. In March 1947, nationalists in east Madagascar began an armed revolt against the French that was not suppressed until August. After the revolt the government emphasized efforts to improve the economy by extending the road system and by exploiting coal deposits more systematically.
During the 1950s France took measures to increase self-government on the island. Elections held in 1951, 1952, and 1957 generally favored those who advocated gradual attainment of independence. The constitution of the Fifth Republic of France was approved by 78 percent of the Madagascan electorate in a referendum held on September 28, 1958. A subsequent congress of the members of the provincial councils proclaimed Madagascar, renamed the Malagasy Republic, a semiautonomous member of the French Community. Philibert Tsiranana, leader of the Social Democratic Party, was inaugurated as president and head of state on November 1. On June 26, 1960, the republic became fully autonomous while retaining a cordial association with France. In September it was admitted to the United Nations.
C Ratsiraka’s Rule
After a decade of political stability, Malagasy underwent serious unrest in the early 1970s, although Tsiranana was reelected for the second time in January 1972. In the spring, however, a student strike grew into general rioting, and Tsiranana was forced to turn power over to the army chief of staff, General Gabriel Ramanantsoa. Ramanantsoa was ousted by other elements of the military in early 1975; in June, Lieutenant Commander Didier Ratsiraka was named head of state. On December 30, the country was renamed the Democratic Republic of Madagascar, and on January 4, 1976, Ratsiraka began a seven-year term as president.
Economic pressures in the late 1970s added to political unrest, to which the government responded with a series of alerts and arrests; alleged antigovernment plots were reported in 1977, 1980, and 1982. Reelected in November 1982 and March 1989, Ratsiraka suppressed another coup attempt in May 1990. After massive antigovernment demonstrations, he promised in August 1991 to institute democratic reforms; a transitional government took office in November, and a new constitution was approved by popular referendum in August 1992. Albert Zafy defeated Ratsiraka in a presidential runoff election in February 1993.
The transition to civilian rule was marked by opposition from troops loyal to Ratsiraka and by conflicts with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) regarding the exchange rate of the Malagasy franc. In September 1996 the National Assembly impeached Zafy for, among other things, failing to reach an agreement with the IMF. Zafy officially stepped down in October, and new presidential elections were held in December. Ratsiraka defeated Zafy and was proclaimed president once again in January 1997.
D Recent Developments
Ratsiraka also struggled with the IMF, and delays in obtaining IMF relief funds led to an erosion of support for his administration. In December 2001 presidential elections Ratsiraka finished second to Marc Ravalomanana, the popular mayor of Antananarivo and a self-made multimillionaire. However, because the vote count showed that neither candidate received more than 50 percent of the vote, a runoff election was required. But Ravalomanana rejected the results of the vote count, claiming to have won more than 50 percent of the vote. Backed by the overwhelming support of Antananarivo residents, he had himself sworn in as president in February 2002. Ratsiraka refused to step down, demanding that the runoff election take place. Supported by rural and coastal provinces, Ratsiraka established a rival government at the port city of Toamasina. Madagascar’s High Constitutional Court conducted a recount and in April declared Ravalomanana the rightful winner with more than 51 percent of the vote. Most of the international community recognized Ravalomanana’s presidency over the subsequent months. Ratsiraka fled Madagascar for France in July.
Ravalomanana’s party, Tiako I Madagasikara (“I Love Madagascar”), easily won parliamentary elections in December 2002. The new government’s priorities included improving the country’s infrastructure (especially the paving of roads), expanding education and health services, and fighting corruption. Imposing businesslike objectives for government ministers, Ravalomanana successfully encouraged international aid and investment in Madagascar. Although opponents accused Ravalomanana of using his position to further his own business interests, he remained popular. Ravalomanana was reelected to a second five-year term in December 2006, winning nearly 55 percent of the vote.
In a referendum held in April 2007, voters approved constitutional changes giving more powers to the president. The expanded powers included the authority to make laws directly during a president-imposed state of emergency. Ravalomanana’s party won by a landslide in parliamentary elections held in September 2007.
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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