Kyrgyzstan
I INTRODUCTION
Kyrgyzstan, officially Kyrgyz Republic (Kyrgyz Kyrgyz Respublikasy), landlocked republic in the eastern part of Central Asia that is bordered on the north by Kazakhstan, on the east by China, on the south by China and Tajikistan, and on the west by Uzbekistan. Bishkek is the capital and largest city.
The Kyrgyz, a Muslim people who speak a Turkic language that is also called Kyrgyz, constitute a majority of the population of Kyrgyzstan. Uzbeks and Russians form the largest ethnic minorities. Kyrgyzstan became part of the Russian Empire in the late 1800s. In 1924 it became an autonomous region of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), and in 1936 its status was upgraded to make it one of the 15 constituent republics of the USSR. Officially known as the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR), it was also commonly known as Kirgizia. Kyrgyzstan became an independent nation in 1991. In 1993 the country ratified its first post-Soviet constitution.
II LAND AND RESOURCES OF KYRGYZSTAN
The total area of Kyrgyzstan is 198,500 sq km (76,640 sq mi). The country is almost completely mountainous. More than half of Kyrgyzstan lies at an elevation higher than 2,500 m (8,200 ft), and only about one-eighth of the country lies lower than 1,500 m (4,900 ft). Glaciers and permanent snowfields cover more than 3 percent of Kyrgyzstan’s total land area. An underlying seismic belt causes frequent earthquakes.
A Mountains and Valleys
Kyrgyzstan is located at the juncture of two great Central Asian mountain systems (the Tian Shan and the Pamirs). These two systems are geologically separated from each other in southern Kyrgyzstan, between the Alai Mountains of the Tian Shan and the Trans-Alai Range (Qatorkŭhi Pasi Oloy) of the Pamirs. The Trans-Alai Range, which is the northernmost part of the Pamirs, forms part of Kyrgyzstan’s southern border with Tajikistan. The main ridge of the Tian Shan extends along Kyrgyzstan’s eastern border with China, on a northeastern axis. Victory Peak (known as Pik Pobedy in Russian and Jenish Chokosu in Kyrgyz) is the highest peak in the Tian Shan system at an elevation of 7,439 m (24,406 ft). Located on the Kyrgyz-China border in northeastern Kyrgyzstan, Victory Peak is also the highest point in Kyrgyzstan and the second highest peak in the former USSR. A series of mountain chains that are part of the Tian Shan system, including the Alatau ranges, spur off into Kyrgyzstan. Most of these ranges run generally east to west, but the Fergana Mountains in the central portion of the country run southeast to northwest. The Fergana Valley in the west and the Chu Valley in the north are among the few significant lowland areas in Kyrgyzstan.
B Lakes and Rivers
The Naryn River, Kyrgyzstan’s largest river, originates in the mountains in the northeast and flows westward through the middle of the country. The Naryn then enters the Fergana Valley and crosses into Uzbekistan, where it joins with another river to form the Syr Darya, one of Central Asia’s principal rivers. The Chu River, in northern Kyrgyzstan, flows northward into southern Kazakhstan. Ysyk-Köl, the largest lake in Kyrgyzstan and one of the largest mountain lakes in the world, is located at an altitude of 1,607 m (5,273 ft) above sea level in the northeastern portion of the country.
C Plants and Animals
Forests occupy 4 percent of the country’s land area. Coniferous trees such as the Tian Shan white spruce grow along lower valleys and on north-facing mountain slopes. Many rare animal species inhabit the woodlands, including the Tian Shan bear, the red wolf, and the snow leopard, which are protected by government decree. Other animals in Kyrgyzstan include deer, mountain goats, and mountain sheep. Kyrgyzstan’s mountain lakes are an annual refuge for thousands of migrating birds, including the mountain goose and other rare species.
D Natural Resources
Kyrgyzstan’s natural resources include significant deposits of gold and other minerals. Also present are deposits of coal, uranium, mercury, antimony, nepheline, bismuth, lead, and zinc. Exploitable but small reserves of oil and natural gas also exist. The country’s fast-flowing rivers provide hydroelectric power. Only 7 percent of the total land area is cultivated.
E Climate
The country’s climate varies by region. The climate is subtropical in the Fergana Valley and temperate in the northern foothill zone. The lower mountain slopes have a dry continental climate, as they receive desert-warmed winds from Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, whereas the highest mountain elevations have a polar climate. In the valleys, the average daily temperature in July is 28°C (82°F). In January daily averages are as low as -14°C (7°F). Conditions are much colder at high elevations, where in July the average daily temperature is 5°C (41°F) and in January, -28°C (-18°F). Precipitation is from 100 to 500 mm (4 to 20 in) in the valleys and from 180 to 1,000 mm (7 to 40 in) in the mountains.
F Environmental Issues
The environment of Kyrgyzstan suffers from the results of decades of ecological mismanagement. Industrial pollution is a problem in the cities. Water pollution is also a major problem, especially in the south, where waterborne diseases are prevalent. In agricultural areas, excessive irrigation and unrestrained use of agricultural chemicals have severely degraded soil quality. Overgrazing of livestock has also contributed to soil degradation, and a significant portion of Kyrgyzstan’s available grasslands has disappeared. Kyrgyzstan contains many abandoned uranium mines that are a potential threat to the environment.
Severe economic constraints have prevented the government from allocating significant funds for environmental improvements. However, with financial support from the international community, Kyrgyzstan has developed an environmental action plan designed to coordinate efforts to improve the environment. The government has designated 3.6 percent of the country’s land area protected and has ratified international environmental agreements pertaining to biodiversity, desertification, and hazardous wastes.
III THE PEOPLE OF KYRGYZSTAN
Kyrgyzstan has a population (2008 estimate) of 5,356,869, giving it an average population density of 28 persons per sq km (73 per sq mi). The population is clustered in two principal areas: the Fergana Valley in the southwest and the Chu Valley in the north. Only 34 percent of the population lives in urban areas. The two largest cities are Bishkek, the capital, located on the Chu River in the far north; and Osh, located in the Fergana Valley.
A Ethnic Groups
Ethnic Kyrgyz make up about 65 percent of the population of Kyrgyzstan. Uzbeks, who live primarily in the Fergana Valley, constitute about 14 percent of the population. Russians, who live principally in Bishkek and other industrial centers, make up about 13 percent of the population. Other ethnic groups include Hui (Chinese Muslims, also known as Dungans), Ukrainians, Uygurs (Uighurs), Tatars, Kazakhs, and Tajiks.
After Kyrgyzstan gained independence, many Russians and some other ethnic minorities chose to leave the country, mainly out of concern that their civil rights were not sufficiently protected in the face of Kyrgyz nationalism. More than 200,000 Russians and 60,000 Germans have emigrated since 1991. As a consequence, the Kyrgyz proportion of the population has increased by more than 10 percent.
B Languages
Kyrgyz has been the official state language of Kyrgyzstan since 1989. At that time only 53 percent of the population was fluent in Kyrgyz, but within ten years 70 percent of the population claimed fluency. Russian remained the language of interethnic communication because of the country’s Russian and Russian-speaking minorities. In 2000 Russian was accorded the status of an official language of the state. Kyrgyzstan was the only former Soviet republic in Central Asia to make this concession to its Russian minority. Like most other Central Asian languages, Kyrgyz is a Turkic language. It was written in the Arabic script until 1928, when the Soviet authorities mandated a switch to a modified Latin (Roman) script. In 1940 a modified version of Cyrillic replaced the Latin script as part of a Soviet drive to increase literacy while simultaneously promoting the script of the Russian language. Cyrillic continues to be widely used, although the government of Kyrgyzstan is committed to the gradual reintroduction of the Latin script.
C Religion
The predominant religion in Kyrgyzstan is Islam. The Kyrgyz and Uzbek populations, along with the country’s other Central Asian groups, are almost all Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi School. The Muslims in the southern regions of Kyrgyzstan are generally more devout than those in the north. The Russian population is traditionally Orthodox Christian. Kyrgyz people practiced ancient rituals of shamanism before their conversion to Islam, which occurred mostly in the 19th century. During most of the Soviet period the officially atheistic Communist regime severely restricted religious practice. The importance of religion has increased substantially since Kyrgyzstan became independent.
D Education
Kyrgyzstan has an adult literacy rate of 99.6 percent. Illiteracy was nearly abolished during the Soviet period, when the government instituted a comprehensive system of free and universal education. Education is compulsory for ten years, or until the age of 15. Institutes of higher education include Kyrgyz State University, the Kyrgyz-Slavonic University, and the Kyrgyz-American University, all located in Bishkek.
E Culture
Oral epics dating from ancient times are an important cultural tradition in Kyrgyzstan and throughout Central Asia. These epos (unwritten narrative epics based on legend) are performed to a melody by minstrels, who the Kyrgyz call akyndar. In Kyrgyzstan the tradition includes an entire series of epos called Manas. The narrative revolves around a heroic archetype called Manas and his battles against hostile hordes in order to carve out a homeland for his people. Akyndar who can recite and improvise from the Manas epos are called manaschi. The oral tradition waned during the Soviet period as literacy increased, but in the mid-1990s the Manas epics were revived. They are venerated as a vital part of the Kyrgyz literary tradition.
In the early 20th century a reformist school of thought spread among the intelligentsia of Central Asia. One member of this movement was Kyrgyz poet, scholar, and nationalist political leader Qasim Tinistan-uulu. Tinistan-uulu was executed in 1934, during Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin’s massive purges of Soviet society. Later in the Soviet period, Kyrgyz writer Chingiz Aitmatov gained international renown, beginning with his collection of short stories entitled Tales of Mountains and Steppes (English translation published in 1969). His other important works include Farewell, Gulsary! (1970), The White Ship (1972), and The Day Lasts More Than a Hundred Years (1980). Aitmatov also cowrote the play The Ascent of Mount Fuji (first produced in Moscow in 1973) with Kazakh playwright Kaltay Muhamedjanov; the play delves into the moral compromises that people had to make under Stalin. Kyrgyz writer Kazat Akmatov used fiction to express criticism of Soviet oppression. Among his works is the novel Years Around the Sun (1992). In the late 1980s both Aitmatov and Akmatov were active in reformist politics; Aitmatov sought to revive interest in the Kyrgyz language, while Akmatov was a prominent figure in the Kyrgyz movement for democratic reforms.
Cultural institutions in Kyrgyzstan are limited mainly to the urban centers. The Kyrgyz State Museum of Fine Art and the State Historical Museum of Kyrgyzstan are both located in Bishkek.
F Economy
The breakdown of established trading relationships following the dissolution of the USSR severely depressed the economy of Kyrgyzstan. Markets for the country’s highly specialized industries disappeared and the high cost of fuel imports—subsidized during the Soviet era—drained the country’s money reserves. By 1995 the gross domestic product (GDP), which measures the total value of goods and services, had fallen to 54 percent of its level in 1990. Beginning in the mid-1990s, however, the economy began to reverse its decline, led by increased agricultural output and a growing private sector. In 2006 the GDP was an estimated $2.82 billion.
Kyrgyzstan is widely seen as one of the leaders among the former Soviet republics in economic reform. In 1992 the government initiated the first in a series of privatization programs to bring about the transition from the centrally planned economy of the Soviet era to a free-market system. The initial step was to transfer the ownership of most housing to its occupants. Industrial privatization began in 1994, and by the end of the 1990s at least 75 percent of enterprises formerly owned by the state were privately owned. In 2000 the government sought to reduce its stakes in its largest assets. The state power company, gas provider, telecommunications company, and national airline were all opened to partial private ownership. Agricultural reform, which proceeded much more slowly, involved breaking up state farms and collectives established during the Soviet period. The transition to private farming has been helped by a constitutional amendment, approved by voters in 1998, legalizing private land ownership for the first time. Previously, farmers could lease land from the government but could not own it outright.
G Agriculture
Agriculture, which in 2006 accounted for 33 percent of GDP, is Kyrgyzstan’s healthiest economic sector. The raising of sheep and cattle remains the dominant agricultural occupation, particularly in the central and eastern mountains. Soviet central planners demanded high meat production from Kyrgyzstan, which forced farm managers to increase herd sizes, resulting in extensive overgrazing. Since independence, the size of herds has been reduced. Vegetables, particularly potatoes and tomatoes, and fruits are grown in the irrigated and intensely cultivated Fergana Valley. Other crops include cotton, tobacco, and sugar beets. Much of Kyrgyzstan’s grain farming takes place in the foothills of the northern mountains.
H Manufacturing
Once based almost exclusively on agriculture, the Kyrgyz economy underwent extensive industrialization during the Soviet period. Raw materials were imported from other parts of the USSR for processing; the resulting products were then exported to other parts of the USSR. In the economic turmoil associated with the breakup of the USSR, industrial production was cut nearly in half as material costs increased and markets for finished goods disappeared. By 2006 industry contributed only 20 percent of GDP. The processing of agricultural goods such as wool, meat, and leather accounts for much of the country’s manufacturing; other manufactured products include textiles, clothing, and shoes. Kyrgyzstan also makes agricultural machinery and refines metal. Most manufacturing plants are concentrated in Bishkek and its environs.
I Mining
Kyrgyzstan has vast mineral resources, including extensive deposits of gold, antimony, and mercury. The country has entered into agreements with foreign companies to assist in developing its gold reserves, estimated to be among the richest in the world. Antimony and mercury refineries are the largest among the former Soviet republics. Coal mining is significant, although production is falling because of aging equipment and increased extraction costs. Unlike neighboring countries, Kyrgyzstan has limited oil and natural gas reserves, although deposits have been found in the Fergana Valley.
J Energy
The Naryn and Chu rivers are used for hydroelectric power, although considerable hydroelectric potential remains undeveloped. Some 90.46 percent of the country’s electricity is generated in hydroelectric facilities. The remaining 9.54 percent comes from thermal plants burning coal. Sales to China, Kazakhstan, and Uzbekistan make electricity Kyrgyzstan’s principal export.
K Currency and Trade
Germany, Uzbekistan, Russia, Kazakhstan, and China are Kyrgyzstan’s chief purchasers of exports. In addition to electricity, leading export items are unprocessed agricultural products, refined metals, and machinery. Leading sources for imports are Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, the United States, and China. Major imports include petroleum and gas, machinery, and processed food. Kyrgyzstan joined with Russia, Belarus, and Kazakhstan in forming a customs union in 1996 to reduce or eliminate barriers to trade; Tajikistan subsequently became a member as well. In 2000 these five countries broadened the scope of the customs union by founding the Eurasian Economic Community (EAEC) to coordinate trade policies and promote economic interaction.
In 1993 Kyrgyzstan became the first former Soviet republic in Central Asia to introduce its own currency, the som (40.20 som equal U.S.$1, 2006 average). In 1994 Kyrgyzstan joined a common economic zone established by Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan for the purpose of deepening regional integration. In response to the initiation of market reforms and government efforts to keep inflation low, Kyrgyzstan has received financial assistance from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (World Bank) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF). In 1998 Kyrgyzstan became the first former Soviet republic to be admitted as a member in the World Trade Organization (WTO), an international body that promotes and enforces trade laws and regulations.
IV GOVERNMENT OF KYRGYZSTAN
Kyrgyzstan is a democratic, secular republic. Its first post-Soviet constitution was ratified in 1993 after a great deal of public debate. Major constitutional amendments were approved by referendum in 1994, 1996, 1998, and 2003. A new constitution was ratified in November 2006, and an amended version of that charter was signed into law in January 2007. After the Constitutional Court ruled that the new constitution was invalid, a new draft constitution was approved by referendum in October 2007. Under the constitution, all citizens age 18 and older are eligible to vote.
A Executive
The president of Kyrgyzstan acts as head of state. The president is directly elected for a five-year term and may serve no more than two consecutive terms. The president appoints the prime minister, with the approval of the legislature, to head the government. The political control of the president has been a major source of contention in Kyrgyzstan, as some political groups have sought to curb presidential powers and strengthen those of the legislature. Under the constitution approved in October 2007, the president has the power to dismiss the government and to directly appoint judges and local government administrators.
B Legislature
Kyrgyzstan has a unicameral (single-chamber) legislature, the Jogorku Kenesh (Supreme Council). Under the constitution approved in October 2007, the Jogorku Kenesh comprises 90 members who are elected by proportional representation to serve five-year terms. In a system of proportional representation, members are chosen through central party lists according to a party’s nationwide vote tally. (Under the 2003 constitution members had been directly elected in a single-constituency system, which awarded seats to candidates receiving the most votes in specific districts.)
C Judiciary
The judicial system consists of the Constitutional Court, the Supreme Court, the Higher Court of Arbitration (which decides legal disputes between businesses), and regional and local courts. The Constitutional Court holds supreme authority in constitutional matters and comprises seven judges, in addition to a chairperson and his or her deputies; its judges are appointed to serve for 15 years. The Supreme Court is the country’s highest court in matters of civil, criminal, and administrative justice; its judges are appointed to serve for 10 years.
D Local Government
For purposes of local government, Kyrgyzstan is divided into seven regions and the municipality of Bishkek. Each region is in turn divided into districts. The most important official in each region is the governor, or akim, who is appointed by the president. Each region also has a popularly elected legislature, but these bodies have little political power. Bishkek is administered independently of regional authority, and its local government reports directly to the central government.
E Political Parties
Until 1990 the Kirgiz Communist Party was the only legal party in the republic. It was disbanded in 1991 and then reestablished in 1992 as the Party of Communists of Kyrgyzstan, but by then it had lost its monopoly of power. Kyrgyzstan has since developed a multiparty system. Unlike other republics of Central Asia, where political opposition has been systematically repressed, Kyrgyzstan allowed the participation of opposition parties after it became a sovereign nation in 1991. However, in 1999 the government introduced legislation allowing it to ban political parties that it considered a threat to the country’s stability.
F Defense
Until Kyrgyzstan became independent, its armed forces were part of the Soviet security system. In 1992 Kyrgyzstan began to form a national defense force, and by 2004 it had an army of 12,500 troops. All 18-year-old males must perform military service for a period of 12 to 18 months. Kyrgyzstan has entered collective security alliances with some other former Soviet republics—including Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, and Russia—as well as China to coordinate efforts to improve joint border security.
G International Organizations
Since 1991 Kyrgyzstan has been a member of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a loose alliance of 12 former Soviet republics. Kyrgyzstan became a full member of the United Nations (UN) in 1992. Also that year, the republic joined the Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO), an organization that promotes economic and cultural cooperation between Islamic states, and the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE; until 1994 named the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe). In 1994 Kyrgyzstan became a participant in the Partnership for Peace program of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), a program that allows for limited military cooperation between NATO and non-NATO states.
V HISTORY OF KYRGYZSTAN
The Kyrgyz are believed to have originally inhabited the upper Yenisey River in central Siberia (now part of Russia). By the 9th century they spoke a Turkic language. In the late 16th century the Kyrgyz settled in the area that is now Kyrgyzstan. The region was conquered by the Oirats, a Mongol people, in the late 17th century. In the 19th century it came under the jurisdiction of the Uzbek khanate (state) of Qŭqon (Kokand). The first Russian invasion of the region took place in the mid-19th century. Russian forces conquered the Qŭqon khanate in 1876, thereby incorporating present-day Kyrgyzstan into the Russian Empire. Russia then designated Central Asia the Turkistan Kray (Russian for “territory”) within Russia. In 1916 many Kyrgyz and other Central Asian peoples waged a large-scale revolt against Russian rule. The Russian government responded with force, which compelled many Kyrgyz to seek refuge in China, across the eastern border. The Russian monarchy fell during the Russian Revolution of 1917, and the Bolsheviks (Communists) seized control of the Russian government.
A Soviet Period
During the Russian Civil War (1918-1921), the Bolsheviks sought to reclaim territories in Central Asia and other parts of the former Russian Empire that had split off following the collapse of the monarchy. Despite resistance by the basmachis, an organized movement of armed Islamic and nationalist guerrillas, the Bolsheviks managed to reestablish control over Central Asia. In 1921 the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan became part of the Turkistan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) within the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic (RSFSR). The Turkistan ASSR also included present-day Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and part of Kazakhstan. The Bolsheviks founded the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in December 1922. In 1924 the Soviet authorities began to delineate new territories in Central Asia along ethnic lines. That year the area of present-day Kyrgyzstan became the Kara-Kirgiz Autonomous Region (renamed Kirgiz Autonomous Region in 1925), and in 1926 the region was upgraded to an autonomous republic, or ASSR. Ten years later it was again upgraded, this time to the status of a constituent republic of the USSR, and was officially named the Kirgiz Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR). It was commonly known as Kirgizia.
Soviet policies had a drastic impact on the life of the Kyrgyz people. The traditional Kyrgyz way of life, which was based on nomadic livestock-herding, was abolished in the course of land reforms during the 1920s and 1930s. The Soviet government consolidated all arable and grazing lands into large state-owned farms, and by the mid-1930s the majority of Kyrgyz had been forcibly settled to work on these farms. Other Kyrgyz fled to the mountains, and even into China, to escape this fate. The collectivization of agriculture eradicated longstanding Kyrgyz landholding patterns, which were based on family and kinship ties.
Large-scale industrialization was another centerpiece of the Soviet planned economy. Heavy industries and uranium-mining operations were established in the Kirgiz SSR. This was accompanied by a large influx of Russians into the republic’s urban areas, and Russians came to constitute a majority of the population in Frunze (now Bishkek). The Russian language was promoted as the primary language in education, business, and politics. Kyrgyz-language schools were virtually nonexistent in urban areas.
The Soviet regime meanwhile sought to eliminate any opposition to the new order. The Kirgiz Communist Party, a local branch of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), was established as the only legal party in the republic. During Soviet leader Joseph Stalin’s violent purges of the 1930s, many members of the Kyrgyz intelligentsia and any others who expressed dissent were imprisoned or executed. A modest political relaxation occurred after Stalin’s death in 1953, but centralized control from Moscow was by then firmly established.
In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became Soviet leader. Gorbachev instituted a program of far-reaching political and economic reforms called glasnost (Russian for “openness”) and perestroika (“restructuring”). Gorbachev’s policies led to demands within the various Soviet republics for greater levels of autonomy. Several unofficial quasi-political groups formed in the Kirgiz SSR in 1989. In 1990 the Soviet government agreed to change the Soviet constitution to allow non-Communist parties to take part in political life. However, the conservative Kirgiz Communist Party leadership opposed this development. In February candidates affiliated with the party ran virtually unopposed in elections to the 350-member Kirgiz Supreme Soviet (legislature), thus securing the party’s control over government in the republic.
Meanwhile, reformist groups rallied around the issue of the republic’s acute housing shortage and challenged the Kyrgyz government to alleviate the problem. In June 1990 disagreement between Uzbeks and Kyrgyz over access to land and housing around the city of Osh, near the Kirgiz-Uzbek border, sparked violent interethnic clashes. The Kyrgyz government imposed a state of emergency, and the border between the Uzbek and Kirgiz republics was closed. The violence continued to escalate, however, and at least 300 people were killed. Order was restored in August, although the state of emergency remained in effect until 1995.
In October 1990 the Kirgiz Supreme Soviet convened to elect a president of the republic. Although the legislature was dominated by the Kirgiz Communist Party, the violence in the Osh region had discredited the party’s candidate, and Askar Akayev, a liberal academic on the reform wing of the republic’s party organization, was elected to the newly created post. Akayev allied himself increasingly with the new political forces emerging in Kirgizia, and he pushed for economic and political reforms that were opposed by many officials in the Kirgiz Communist Party bureaucracy.
In 1991 the Soviet republics began to declare independence. Taking the name Kyrgyzstan, Kirgizia declared its independence in September, shortly after a failed coup attempt by Communist hardliners in Moscow. Among the heads of the 15 Soviet republics, only Askar Akayev in Kirgizia and Boris Yeltsin in Russia openly resisted the coup. In the wake of the coup, the Kirgiz Communist Party was temporarily dissolved (until 1992). Although Communist conservatives continued to dominate the legislature, they did not put forth a candidate in the presidential election in October. Akayev ran unopposed in the direct election and was reelected president. After the USSR collapsed officially in December 1991, Kyrgyzstan joined most of the other former Soviet republics in the newly formed Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS), a loose alliance for political, economic, and military cooperation.
B Independent Republic
In 1993 Kyrgyzstan adopted its first post-Soviet constitution. Although the constitution created a parliamentary system of government, the president retained considerable authority, including the power to dissolve the legislature and appoint the prime minister. The country’s first legislative elections were scheduled for 1995, thereby allowing the legislature that had been elected in 1990 to complete its term.
Akayev quickly went forward with an intensive program of market-oriented economic reforms, outpacing the reforms implemented in the other Central Asian states. He also championed democratic reforms, allowing political opposition and a free press to develop in the country.
In October 1994 Akayev called a national referendum on a constitutional amendment to make the legislature a bicameral (two-chamber) body, and voters approved the proposal. Elections to the lower house of the legislature, called the Jogorku Kenesh (Supreme Council), were held in February 1995. Although 11 parties won representation, independents (politicians with no party affiliation) claimed the majority of seats.
Also in 1995, Akayev sought to extend the length of his term through a national referendum, but the Jogorku Kenesh resisted this initiative. The legislature’s only concession was to allow an early presidential election, thereby giving other candidates little time to campaign. In December Akayev won a second term amid allegations of widespread voting irregularities. In early 1996 he called a referendum in which voters approved constitutional amendments enhancing his powers. Akayev was subsequently accused of developing an increasingly restrictive regime and of steering Kyrgyzstan from the path of democratic reform.
In the legislative elections of February and March 2000, independents again won a majority of seats. Six parties gained representation in the Jogorku Kenesh, with the most seats going to the Union of Democratic Forces, a newly formed alliance of three pro-Akayev parties. Many opposition politicians were disqualified from running on minor technicalities that were widely viewed as politically motivated. In the presidential election held in October, Akayev was reelected to a third term. Despite a constitutional limit of two terms, the Constitutional Court had authorized Akayev to stand for reelection because his first term began under the constitution of the Soviet period. International observers of both elections reported widespread voting irregularities.
Meanwhile, in the late 1990s militant Muslim groups began to stage armed guerrilla incursions into southern Kyrgyzstan from neighboring Uzbekistan and Tajikistan. The government responded with large-scale military interventions, at times aided by Uzbekistan forces. Like other Central Asian leaders, Akayev viewed Islamic fundamentalism as a potential threat to his country’s political stability. To improve border security in the region, he joined Kyrgyzstan to regional security alliances that include Russia and China. Following terrorist attacks in the United States on September 11, 2001, Kyrgyzstan allowed U.S. forces to use Bishkek’s Manas airport as a base for military operations in Afghanistan. In October 2003 Russian forces were allowed to establish a military base in Kant, near Bishkek, under the auspices of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) Collective Security Treaty Organization.
B1 Political Unrest
In 2002 political unrest erupted in southern Kyrgyzstan, long the most economically depressed and politically marginalized region of the country. The arrest of an opposition politician from the region, Azimbek Beknazarov, sparked a series of protests. In March several protesters were killed and more than a dozen were wounded when police fired into a crowd in the southern district of Aksy. In the wake of the incident, additional protests were held demanding that those responsible for the killings be punished. Protesters also called for Akayev’s resignation. Several former regional prosecutors and police officials were subsequently sentenced to prison in connection with the Aksy shootings, but critics charged that senior officials who had authorized the use of force had not been prosecuted.
Faced with continuing demands for his resignation, Akayev called for a nationwide referendum in February 2003 asking voters to decide whether he should serve out the remainder of his term through 2005, as well as to approve or reject a package of amendments to the constitution. The amendments included guaranteeing former presidents immunity from prosecution for actions taken while in office. According to official results, an overwhelming majority of voters supported allowing Akayev to remain in office and approved the proposed amendments. However, local and international observers noted numerous voting irregularities.
The amendments of 2003 reconfigured the Jogorku Kenesh, making it a single-chamber body composed of 75 members, while also changing the system of voting in legislative elections. The system of proportional representation was abolished in favor of a “first-past-the-post” system, which critics charged would disadvantage smaller opposition parties. The changes, scheduled to go into effect with the 2005 legislative elections, were widely viewed as a bid by Akayev to strengthen his position ahead of his term’s expiration later that year.
B2 Akayev Swept From Power
Many opposition candidates were disqualified from running in the 2005 legislative elections for alleged campaign violations, sparking a new wave of protests in southern Kyrgyzstan prior to the February poll. Following an indecisive first round of voting in many districts, runoff elections were held in mid-March. Supporters of Akayev won an overwhelming victory, but both the opposition and election observers from the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe (OSCE) described the vote as seriously flawed.
Akayev became the focal point of continuing protests, as opposition forces demanded his resignation in the wake of the elections. Protests gained momentum in the south, with demonstrators taking over government buildings in Jalal-Abad and Osh, and erupted in Bishkek in the north on March 23. The following day demonstrators stormed government buildings in the capital. Akayev fled the country, taking refuge in Russia. He initially refused to step down, but on April 4 he finally conceded, signing a resignation agreement in Moscow. The newly elected Jogorku Kenesh accepted his resignation on April 11 and scheduled presidential elections for July. Opposition politician Kurmanbek Bakiyev, the main leader of the protests in Bishkek, won the election by a landslide, taking 89 percent of the vote. Election monitors associated with the OSCE said the free and fair election represented tangible progress in establishing democratic standards in Kyrgyzstan.
Constitutional reform was a major rallying point of the protests that ousted Akayev, who had orchestrated many constitutional changes over the years to increase his power at the expense of the legislature. Once in office, however, President Bakiyev resisted implementing the democratic reforms he had promised. Massive protests demanding his resignation erupted in Bishkek in November 2006. Protesters also called for immediate constitutional reform. These demands found support in the Jogorku Kenesh, which was dominated by legislators who had supported Akayev. Faced with a growing political crisis, Bakiyev approved a new constitution in November that limited presidential powers and gave more authority to the legislature. However, in the following weeks amendments were written into the new constitution that returned many key powers to the president. Bakiyev signed the much-amended constitution into law in January 2007.
In September 2007 the Constitutional Court of Kyrgyzstan ruled that the new constitution was invalid because it had never been approved by referendum. The court restored the 2003 constitution. Bakiyev soon unveiled a new draft constitution and announced that voters would be asked to approve it in a referendum. According to the official results of the referendum, held in October 2007, voters gave overwhelming support to the new charter, as well as a new electoral law. However, independent election observers reported numerous violations in the voting. Among other provisions, the new constitution gave the president the power to dismiss the government and to directly appoint judges and local administrators.
Immediately following the referendum, Bakiyev dissolved the Jogorku Kenesh and called for early parliamentary elections. Under the new constitution members of the Jogorku Kenesh would be chosen from central party lists through a system of proportional representation, rather than by direct vote as before. In the elections held in December, Bakiyev’s new political party, Ak Zhol (Bright Path), won an overwhelming majority in the legislature. The opposition Ata Meken (Fatherland) party was denied any seats due to the new electoral law requiring parties to receive more than 5 percent of the national vote as well as a certain number of votes in each region. International monitors described the election as flawed.
Reviewed By:
Eugene Huskey
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
Thursday, August 5, 2010
KUWAIT
Kuwait (country)
I INTRODUCTION
Kuwait (country), nation in the Middle East, located at the northwestern tip of the Persian Gulf. Kuwait is a small, desert country, but it possesses a strategic stretch of Persian Gulf coastline and significant petroleum reserves. Kuwaiti citizens, who are Arab Muslims, make up less than half of the country’s population—most of the remainder are immigrant workers.
For many years Kuwait was a minor emirate whose economy centered on sea trade and especially pearl exports. The discovery of oil in the 20th century transformed all aspects of Kuwaiti society, and today the country has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. In 1990 neighboring Iraq invaded Kuwait, precipitating the 1991 Persian Gulf War, in which an international force expelled the Iraqis.
II LAND AND RESOURCES
Kuwait is one of the world’s smallest countries, occupying 17,818 sq km (6,880 sq mi). The greatest distance from north to south is 200 km (120 mi) and from east to west 170 km (110 mi). Kuwait is bordered on the north and west by Iraq, on the south and west by Saudi Arabia, and on the east by the Persian Gulf. The capital is Kuwait city.
A Natural Regions
The Kuwaiti interior is covered by arid, pebbly desert. The topography is flat with some small rolling hills. Kuwait’s highest point, in the far west, is just 281 m (922 ft) above sea level.
Kuwait’s coastal plain is low and marshy, and the coastline is dotted with mudflats, offshore bars, and low islands. Larger islands include Būbiyān, near the Iraqi border, and Faylakah, the only island with a significant population. Midway along the coast is Kuwait Bay, on which the city of Kuwait is located. This inlet is the only deepwater harbor on the west coast of the Persian Gulf and accounts, in part, for Kuwait’s prominence in maritime activity.
B Climate
Climatically, Kuwait is a tropical desert. Summer day temperatures are extremely high–routinely surpassing 45°C (113°F)—but the air is dry except along the coast, where it is often very humid. Winter days are usually warm and pleasant—the average temperature in January, the coldest month, is 13.5°C (56°F). Annual rainfall is typically less than 127 mm (5 in) per year, and almost all of it falls in the cooler winter. Frost occurs at times in the interior on winter nights.
C Natural Resources
Kuwait has no lakes and rivers and few sources of fresh water. Water for drinking and irrigation is available only from underground aquifers and through desalination (removal of salt) of seawater. There is little vegetation except for marsh plants along the coast and grasses and scattered thorn trees inland. Kuwait’s only significant natural resource is petroleum, the country’s main economic product. Without the economic resources available from oil, the Kuwaiti environment would be too harsh to support a substantial population.
D Environmental Issues
The Persian Gulf War rendered Kuwait an ecological disaster area, the country suffering serious degradation of its air, marine resources, and soil. During the war, huge lakes of spilled oil fouled desert sands, and millions of liters of oil flowed into the Persian Gulf, threatening wildlife and fisheries. Oil wells that were set ablaze created soot that covered the countryside. Some of the environmental damage may be irreparable. Air pollution is an ongoing concern—besides being a top producer of petroleum, Kuwait also has one of the world’s highest rates of petroleum consumption per capita.
III PEOPLE AND SOCIETY
Most Kuwaitis live in the capital city of Kuwait or its suburbs, such as Hawalli. Even most of Kuwait’s Bedouins—Arabs who are traditionally nomadic—have settled into permanent residences in the districts outside the capital. Thus, virtually the entire population is urban. Kuwaitis often refer to “inner” Kuwait with its more liberal and cosmopolitan atmosphere and “outer” Kuwait, farther from the central city, where conservative Bedouin and tribal influences are stronger.
In 2008 Kuwait had an estimated population of 2,596,799. The average population density was 146 persons per sq km (377 per sq mi). Population growth rate is very high—3.59 percent (2008)—probably owing to Kuwait’s prosperity and high level of health care and social services. About 48 percent of the population was younger than 25 years old in 2004.
A Ethnic Groups
Only about 43 percent of the population of Kuwait are native Kuwaiti citizens. Almost all Kuwaiti citizens are Arabs. Most of the remainder of the country’s population are foreign workers. The majority of immigrants are from other Arab countries as well as Iran, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. Kuwait also has a significant population classified as bidun (Arabic for “without”), who are not citizens of any country. Many bidun claim to have lived in Kuwait for generations without receiving citizenship, while Kuwait claims they are recent immigrants who should not be granted full citizenship.
B Language and Religion
Kuwait’s official language is Arabic, which is spoken by all citizens. Both Arabic and English are taught in Kuwaiti schools, and English is widely used among Kuwait’s many foreign communities. Because Islam is the official religion, all Kuwaiti citizens are Muslim, and Islamic practices, such as fasting during the month of Ramadan, are widely observed. Sunni Muslims make up about 45 percent of the population while Shia Muslims make up about 40 percent. Foreigners living in the country are free to practice their own religions, but conversion by a Muslim to another religion is not allowed. Although Kuwait follows the Western calendar for business purposes, Islamic feasts and festivals, which follow the lunar Islamic calendar, dominate the year.
C Education
Oil revenues have allowed Kuwait to build an extensive educational system, yielding a literacy rate of 84 percent. Public school is free and compulsory from the age of 6 to 13, and several private schools also teach this age group. Kuwait University (founded in 1966) is also free and offers programs in a wide range of professional and scientific fields at several campuses. Both the extensive library system at Kuwait University and the collection at Kuwait National Museum (1957) were heavily damaged and looted during the Iraqi occupation in the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
D Society
Kuwait offers free medical care to all residents, including citizens of other countries. The government also provides several other benefits, including housing subsidies, without levying taxes. As a result, many Kuwaitis depend on the government for support, but poverty, unemployment, and crime are low by global standards. However, affluence and rapid change have brought their own difficulties. By hiring many foreign workers, Kuwaitis have made themselves a minority in their own country. Relations between Kuwaitis and immigrants are sometimes strained, and foreigners often complain of unfair treatment in the workplace. Obtaining Kuwaiti citizenship is extremely difficult, further widening the gulf between the two groups. Among Kuwaitis, the rapid expansion of educational opportunities, wealth, and foreign travel has led many older people to feel estranged from the younger generation.
Kuwaitis tend to have strong attachments to their families. A house is designed to show little to the outside world, and often has a nearby structure, called a diwaniyya, for receiving guests. Men spend much of their evenings in the diwaniyyas with friends and associates while women are usually inside the house. In large part because cultural life is centered around home and diwaniyya, there are few theaters or other places of public entertainment.
Most Kuwaiti men wear a modified form of traditional gown called the dishdasha along with Arab headdress. Kuwaiti women wear a wide variety of clothing, from jeans to loosely fitting gowns and head coverings. Foreigners tend to dress the way they would in their home countries, although more revealing clothing, such as shorts, is frowned upon. Thanks to the large immigrant population, many types of food are available in Kuwait, especially Lebanese and Indian food. In accordance with Islamic teaching, alcohol and pork products are banned. Team sports, especially soccer, are popular in Kuwait. Many Kuwaitis also enjoy maritime sports such as sailing, yachting, and fishing.
IV ECONOMY
Kuwait is one of the world’s richest countries per capita. Its initial prosperity was founded almost completely on oil reserves, which, at an estimated 102 billion barrels (2007), is roughly 8 percent of the world’s total. Over time, however, Kuwait used oil earnings to make large investments abroad. By 1990 the country earned more from foreign investment than from oil exports. The expenses of the Iraqi invasion and postwar reconstruction placed a heavy economic burden on the country, but by the mid-1990s Kuwait had resumed its preinvasion prosperity. Gross domestic product (GDP) for 2005 was $80.8 billion, giving Kuwait a per capita GDP of $31,860.60. The labor force totals 1,426,421 people, only about one-quarter of whom are Kuwaiti citizens.
A Oil Industry
Because the government owns the oil industry, it controls most of the economy—in all, about 75 percent of the GDP. Kuwait’s oil exports vary depending on internal needs (almost all of Kuwait’s energy is derived from oil), international demand and prices, and production quotas fixed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), of which Kuwait is a member. OPEC’s quotas, however, are difficult to enforce, and Kuwait and other countries have been accused of violating them. In 2004 oil production was 795 million barrels.
B Foreign Trade
While efforts have been made to encourage local agriculture and industry, Kuwait imports most products, including a wide range of food and manufactured goods. Imports totaled $7.9 billion in 2001, while exports amounted to $16.2 billion. Leading purchasers of Kuwait’s exports are Japan, South Korea, the United States, and Singapore; chief sources for imports are the United States, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom.
C Currency
The Central Bank of Kuwait in the capital city issues Kuwait’s currency, the Kuwaiti dinar. The dinar is valued at 0.30 dinars per U.S.$1 (2006 average).
D Transportation
Kuwait’s transportation system is modern and efficient, with a road system that is well developed by regional standards. Roads total 5,749 km (3,572 mi), of which 85 percent are paved, and most people travel by automobile. A small public bus system serves mainly foreign workers. An international airport is located on the southern outskirts of the Kuwait city metropolitan area and Kuwait Airways is the national airline. The country has three modern seaports, one of which specializes in oil exports.
E Communication
Kuwait has a lively press with several independently owned daily newspapers that publish in Arabic and English. Formal press censorship ended in 1992, and today newspapers argue vigorously about most public issues. However, certain subjects (such as the emir) are considered beyond public criticism. Television, radio, and the Kuwaiti News Agency (KUNA) remain under government control and are less spirited.
V GOVERNMENT
Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy. It is governed by its 1962 constitution, which established a National Assembly that shares power with an emir. The emir suspended the constitution and parliament from 1976 to 1980 and again from 1986 to 1992, both times for loosely specified reasons. Although the emir and his family dominate the political system, there are significant elements of a parliamentary democracy. When the emir attempted to create a purely consultative national council in 1990 to replace the parliament, the opposition boycotted elections. Before the issue could be resolved, Iraq invaded. In return for unity during the invasion, the emir agreed to restore the constitution and parliament.
Native Kuwaiti citizens who are at least 21 years old have the right to vote and run for political office. Naturalized citizens are required to have lived in Kuwait for a certain period of time before they can vote or run for office. Police and military personnel are not allowed to vote.
A Executive
Executive power is vested in an emir. Only male descendants of Mubarak al-Sabah, the founder of Kuwait, may become emir. A cabinet of ministers assists the emir. The most important cabinet posts, such as the ministries of defense, foreign affairs, and interior, have generally remained within the Sabah family as well. Other cabinet members are typically selected from legislators and experts in the general population.
B Legislature
Fifty members are elected to the unicameral (one-house) National Assembly every four years. The emir selects a prime minister to lead the National Assembly, and the prime minister in turn selects the cabinet ministers. The crown prince, heir apparent to the emir, has traditionally served as prime minister. The assembly’s role in day-to-day governing is limited, but it has the exclusive right to pass laws—a field where it has often displayed independence from the government. The assembly has the authority to withdraw confidence from the cabinet or from individual ministers, but it has rarely done so. Parliamentary debates are often vigorous and members feel free to criticize the government, its policies, and each other vociferously, although the emir is never personally criticized.
C Judiciary
Kuwait has three courts: primary, appellate, and supreme. There are also specialized courts for administrative, military, and constitutional cases. Most Kuwaiti law is modeled after European law. Personal matters, including marriage, divorce, and inheritance, are governed by Islamic law but handled by the regular court system. The majority of judges are Kuwaiti, although the shortage of labor prompted the government to hire judges from other Arab countries.
D Political Groups
Formal political parties in Kuwait have no legal standing. However, the government tolerates umbrella organizations with strong ideological tendencies that air many different views. Most of these organizations are either traditional and Islamic or liberal and secular (nonreligious), and within these factions are further divisions. Many leading merchant families use the country’s chamber of commerce to play a strong political role. Even without parties, political affiliations are widely known.
E Defense
Kuwaiti men are required to serve two years in the armed forces beginning at the age of 18. However, exemptions are easily granted, such as for schooling, and most Kuwaitis who wish to avoid service are able to do so. Before 1990 the army had 16,000 troops, the air force 2,200, and the navy 1,800. Following the 1991 Persian Gulf War, these numbers dropped to less than half their prewar strength. The government implemented a plan to increase overall armed strength to 30,000. In 2004 army troop forces numbered 11,000, the navy totaled 2,000 members, and the Kuwaiti air force had 2,500 personnel.
F International Alliances
Kuwait relies heavily on international alliances. Following independence in 1961, Kuwait joined the United Nations and the Arab League. At the beginning of the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), Kuwait joined other small, oil-rich states in the region to form the Gulf Cooperation Council. In 1991, after Iraq was evicted from Kuwait, Kuwait signed a ten-year defense agreement with the United States; this agreement was renewed in 2001. Agreements were also made with some European and Arab states, although Kuwait considers the United States its chief international protector. American troops are stationed west of the capital. The number of American troops in Kuwait swelled in the lead-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, which was launched from Kuwait.
VI HISTORY
The area around Kuwait has been settled for thousands of years, although the harsh physical conditions have led to shifting populations. The Kuwaiti island of Faylakah was home to an important Bronze Age settlement 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. This settlement was linked to the ancient trading culture of Dilmun, which was centered on the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain, to the south. The ancient Greeks built a fortress on Faylakah in the 4th century bc and knew the island as Ikaros.
A The Sabah Monarchy
In the 18th century ad several groups migrated from the interior of the Arabian Peninsula and settled at the site of present-day Kuwait city. One family, the Sabahs, established themselves as rulers. Economic activity centered around pearling and long-distance trade. In the late 19th century the British established a presence in the area to secure the lines of communication and transportation to India. In particular, the British formed close relationships with local rulers who were anxious to assert their autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the area. In 1899 Mubarak al-Sabah, then ruler of Kuwait, signed an agreement with Britain, making Kuwait a protectorate of the British Empire. Britain gained control over Kuwait’s foreign and defense affairs and in return protected Kuwait and allowed the Sabahs to rule over internal affairs.
Oil was discovered in Kuwait in the late 1930s, but not until after World War II (1939-1945) did Kuwait begin to export large quantities of oil. Oil wealth transformed the society. Large-scale construction and economic development became possible, and since the government controlled oil revenues, the power of the Sabah family grew as well. Oil wealth also brought more contact with the outside world, and many younger Kuwaitis favored the pan-Arab movement, which sought greater ties among Arab countries.
B Independence
In 1961 Britain granted independence to Kuwait. Iraq, which had long claimed Kuwait was part of southern Iraq, argued that Kuwait had been separated from it illegitimately. After being pressured by Arab countries and Britain, Iraq eventually backed down from its claim. The emir of Kuwait nonetheless felt it necessary to promote national unity. He allowed elections for a constituent assembly, which took place in late 1961, and the assembly wrote a constitution the following year that guaranteed the Sabah’s dominance but allowed the people a role in government. On two occasions, in 1976 and 1986, the emir’s successors suspended parts of the constitution, but on both occasions they later consented to renew constitutional life.
In the 1960s and 1970s Kuwait became a leading, although not radical, voice in support of Arab nationalism and Palestinian claims to a homeland. Pan-Arabism was popular, especially among students, and many Kuwaiti teachers and journalists were Palestinians. In 1980, when war broke out between Iran and Iraq (see Iran-Iraq War), Kuwait helped the Arab Iraqis even though it exposed them to Iranian attacks.
C Persian Gulf War and Recent Developments
In 1990 relations with Iraq worsened. Iraq accused Kuwait of exceeding OPEC production quotas for oil and “stealing” more than $2 billion in oil from a contested reserve that lay beneath both countries. Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein also demanded Kuwait cancel the debt Iraq owed from the Iran-Iraq War and revived Iraq’s claims of sovereignty over Kuwait. When Hussein mobilized Iraqi troops on the border in late July, Kuwait had neither the military might nor the external protection to prevent an invasion. On August 2 Iraq invaded Kuwait and quickly overwhelmed Kuwaiti forces. An international force assembled in neighboring Saudi Arabia and evicted Iraq from Kuwait after six weeks of fighting in early 1991.
As the Iraqis retreated, much of Kuwait’s industry, infrastructure, and buildings were destroyed. Among the most heavily damaged were palaces of the royal family, government and other public buildings, oil wells, and roads. Looting was widespread, on both an individual and organized basis: Entire collections from libraries, museums, and laboratories were transported to Iraq. Since the war, Kuwait has been largely rebuilt.
In 1994 Iraq again massed troops near the Kuwaiti border. Following months of diplomatic pressure from the UN and military buildup by the United States and its allies, Iraq withdrew troops from the border. Hussein also signed a decree formally accepting Kuwait’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, effectively ending Iraq’s claim to Kuwait. Kuwait served as the launching point for the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, which overthrew Hussein’s regime (see U.S.-Iraq War).
Following elections in July 2003 in which liberal candidates lost ground to Islamists and government supporters, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah was appointed as prime minister by the emir. This was the first time in the country’s history that the roles of crown prince and prime minister had been separated. The separation of powers had been a key modification demanded by reform groups.
In May 2005 the National Assembly approved an amendment to Kuwait’s election law that granted women full political rights, including the right to vote and run for political office. Previously, the constitution restricted these rights to men even though the constitution barred discrimination on the basis of gender. In June Massouma al-Mubarak was appointed minister of planning and became Kuwait’s first woman cabinet minister.
In January 2006 the emir of Kuwait died. His cousin, Sheikh Saad al-Abdullah al-Salem al-Sabah, had long been designated his successor. However, Sheikh Saad was in ill-health and unable to take the oath of office. The ruling family remained divided on succession, but after ten days it allowed the National Assembly to designate the emir: the prime minister and late emir’s brother, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah. In June 2006 elections for the National Assembly, 32 of the 402 candidates were women, but women failed to win a single seat. A loose coalition of Islamist and reformist candidates won a resounding victory, securing a majority of the seats, according to Kuwaiti media. The reform coalition soon clashed with the government, especially with regard to some cabinet ministers that the coalition deemed inefficient or corrupt.
Contributed By:
Nathan J. Brown
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
I INTRODUCTION
Kuwait (country), nation in the Middle East, located at the northwestern tip of the Persian Gulf. Kuwait is a small, desert country, but it possesses a strategic stretch of Persian Gulf coastline and significant petroleum reserves. Kuwaiti citizens, who are Arab Muslims, make up less than half of the country’s population—most of the remainder are immigrant workers.
For many years Kuwait was a minor emirate whose economy centered on sea trade and especially pearl exports. The discovery of oil in the 20th century transformed all aspects of Kuwaiti society, and today the country has one of the highest per capita incomes in the world. In 1990 neighboring Iraq invaded Kuwait, precipitating the 1991 Persian Gulf War, in which an international force expelled the Iraqis.
II LAND AND RESOURCES
Kuwait is one of the world’s smallest countries, occupying 17,818 sq km (6,880 sq mi). The greatest distance from north to south is 200 km (120 mi) and from east to west 170 km (110 mi). Kuwait is bordered on the north and west by Iraq, on the south and west by Saudi Arabia, and on the east by the Persian Gulf. The capital is Kuwait city.
A Natural Regions
The Kuwaiti interior is covered by arid, pebbly desert. The topography is flat with some small rolling hills. Kuwait’s highest point, in the far west, is just 281 m (922 ft) above sea level.
Kuwait’s coastal plain is low and marshy, and the coastline is dotted with mudflats, offshore bars, and low islands. Larger islands include Būbiyān, near the Iraqi border, and Faylakah, the only island with a significant population. Midway along the coast is Kuwait Bay, on which the city of Kuwait is located. This inlet is the only deepwater harbor on the west coast of the Persian Gulf and accounts, in part, for Kuwait’s prominence in maritime activity.
B Climate
Climatically, Kuwait is a tropical desert. Summer day temperatures are extremely high–routinely surpassing 45°C (113°F)—but the air is dry except along the coast, where it is often very humid. Winter days are usually warm and pleasant—the average temperature in January, the coldest month, is 13.5°C (56°F). Annual rainfall is typically less than 127 mm (5 in) per year, and almost all of it falls in the cooler winter. Frost occurs at times in the interior on winter nights.
C Natural Resources
Kuwait has no lakes and rivers and few sources of fresh water. Water for drinking and irrigation is available only from underground aquifers and through desalination (removal of salt) of seawater. There is little vegetation except for marsh plants along the coast and grasses and scattered thorn trees inland. Kuwait’s only significant natural resource is petroleum, the country’s main economic product. Without the economic resources available from oil, the Kuwaiti environment would be too harsh to support a substantial population.
D Environmental Issues
The Persian Gulf War rendered Kuwait an ecological disaster area, the country suffering serious degradation of its air, marine resources, and soil. During the war, huge lakes of spilled oil fouled desert sands, and millions of liters of oil flowed into the Persian Gulf, threatening wildlife and fisheries. Oil wells that were set ablaze created soot that covered the countryside. Some of the environmental damage may be irreparable. Air pollution is an ongoing concern—besides being a top producer of petroleum, Kuwait also has one of the world’s highest rates of petroleum consumption per capita.
III PEOPLE AND SOCIETY
Most Kuwaitis live in the capital city of Kuwait or its suburbs, such as Hawalli. Even most of Kuwait’s Bedouins—Arabs who are traditionally nomadic—have settled into permanent residences in the districts outside the capital. Thus, virtually the entire population is urban. Kuwaitis often refer to “inner” Kuwait with its more liberal and cosmopolitan atmosphere and “outer” Kuwait, farther from the central city, where conservative Bedouin and tribal influences are stronger.
In 2008 Kuwait had an estimated population of 2,596,799. The average population density was 146 persons per sq km (377 per sq mi). Population growth rate is very high—3.59 percent (2008)—probably owing to Kuwait’s prosperity and high level of health care and social services. About 48 percent of the population was younger than 25 years old in 2004.
A Ethnic Groups
Only about 43 percent of the population of Kuwait are native Kuwaiti citizens. Almost all Kuwaiti citizens are Arabs. Most of the remainder of the country’s population are foreign workers. The majority of immigrants are from other Arab countries as well as Iran, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and the Philippines. Kuwait also has a significant population classified as bidun (Arabic for “without”), who are not citizens of any country. Many bidun claim to have lived in Kuwait for generations without receiving citizenship, while Kuwait claims they are recent immigrants who should not be granted full citizenship.
B Language and Religion
Kuwait’s official language is Arabic, which is spoken by all citizens. Both Arabic and English are taught in Kuwaiti schools, and English is widely used among Kuwait’s many foreign communities. Because Islam is the official religion, all Kuwaiti citizens are Muslim, and Islamic practices, such as fasting during the month of Ramadan, are widely observed. Sunni Muslims make up about 45 percent of the population while Shia Muslims make up about 40 percent. Foreigners living in the country are free to practice their own religions, but conversion by a Muslim to another religion is not allowed. Although Kuwait follows the Western calendar for business purposes, Islamic feasts and festivals, which follow the lunar Islamic calendar, dominate the year.
C Education
Oil revenues have allowed Kuwait to build an extensive educational system, yielding a literacy rate of 84 percent. Public school is free and compulsory from the age of 6 to 13, and several private schools also teach this age group. Kuwait University (founded in 1966) is also free and offers programs in a wide range of professional and scientific fields at several campuses. Both the extensive library system at Kuwait University and the collection at Kuwait National Museum (1957) were heavily damaged and looted during the Iraqi occupation in the 1991 Persian Gulf War.
D Society
Kuwait offers free medical care to all residents, including citizens of other countries. The government also provides several other benefits, including housing subsidies, without levying taxes. As a result, many Kuwaitis depend on the government for support, but poverty, unemployment, and crime are low by global standards. However, affluence and rapid change have brought their own difficulties. By hiring many foreign workers, Kuwaitis have made themselves a minority in their own country. Relations between Kuwaitis and immigrants are sometimes strained, and foreigners often complain of unfair treatment in the workplace. Obtaining Kuwaiti citizenship is extremely difficult, further widening the gulf between the two groups. Among Kuwaitis, the rapid expansion of educational opportunities, wealth, and foreign travel has led many older people to feel estranged from the younger generation.
Kuwaitis tend to have strong attachments to their families. A house is designed to show little to the outside world, and often has a nearby structure, called a diwaniyya, for receiving guests. Men spend much of their evenings in the diwaniyyas with friends and associates while women are usually inside the house. In large part because cultural life is centered around home and diwaniyya, there are few theaters or other places of public entertainment.
Most Kuwaiti men wear a modified form of traditional gown called the dishdasha along with Arab headdress. Kuwaiti women wear a wide variety of clothing, from jeans to loosely fitting gowns and head coverings. Foreigners tend to dress the way they would in their home countries, although more revealing clothing, such as shorts, is frowned upon. Thanks to the large immigrant population, many types of food are available in Kuwait, especially Lebanese and Indian food. In accordance with Islamic teaching, alcohol and pork products are banned. Team sports, especially soccer, are popular in Kuwait. Many Kuwaitis also enjoy maritime sports such as sailing, yachting, and fishing.
IV ECONOMY
Kuwait is one of the world’s richest countries per capita. Its initial prosperity was founded almost completely on oil reserves, which, at an estimated 102 billion barrels (2007), is roughly 8 percent of the world’s total. Over time, however, Kuwait used oil earnings to make large investments abroad. By 1990 the country earned more from foreign investment than from oil exports. The expenses of the Iraqi invasion and postwar reconstruction placed a heavy economic burden on the country, but by the mid-1990s Kuwait had resumed its preinvasion prosperity. Gross domestic product (GDP) for 2005 was $80.8 billion, giving Kuwait a per capita GDP of $31,860.60. The labor force totals 1,426,421 people, only about one-quarter of whom are Kuwaiti citizens.
A Oil Industry
Because the government owns the oil industry, it controls most of the economy—in all, about 75 percent of the GDP. Kuwait’s oil exports vary depending on internal needs (almost all of Kuwait’s energy is derived from oil), international demand and prices, and production quotas fixed by the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), of which Kuwait is a member. OPEC’s quotas, however, are difficult to enforce, and Kuwait and other countries have been accused of violating them. In 2004 oil production was 795 million barrels.
B Foreign Trade
While efforts have been made to encourage local agriculture and industry, Kuwait imports most products, including a wide range of food and manufactured goods. Imports totaled $7.9 billion in 2001, while exports amounted to $16.2 billion. Leading purchasers of Kuwait’s exports are Japan, South Korea, the United States, and Singapore; chief sources for imports are the United States, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom.
C Currency
The Central Bank of Kuwait in the capital city issues Kuwait’s currency, the Kuwaiti dinar. The dinar is valued at 0.30 dinars per U.S.$1 (2006 average).
D Transportation
Kuwait’s transportation system is modern and efficient, with a road system that is well developed by regional standards. Roads total 5,749 km (3,572 mi), of which 85 percent are paved, and most people travel by automobile. A small public bus system serves mainly foreign workers. An international airport is located on the southern outskirts of the Kuwait city metropolitan area and Kuwait Airways is the national airline. The country has three modern seaports, one of which specializes in oil exports.
E Communication
Kuwait has a lively press with several independently owned daily newspapers that publish in Arabic and English. Formal press censorship ended in 1992, and today newspapers argue vigorously about most public issues. However, certain subjects (such as the emir) are considered beyond public criticism. Television, radio, and the Kuwaiti News Agency (KUNA) remain under government control and are less spirited.
V GOVERNMENT
Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy. It is governed by its 1962 constitution, which established a National Assembly that shares power with an emir. The emir suspended the constitution and parliament from 1976 to 1980 and again from 1986 to 1992, both times for loosely specified reasons. Although the emir and his family dominate the political system, there are significant elements of a parliamentary democracy. When the emir attempted to create a purely consultative national council in 1990 to replace the parliament, the opposition boycotted elections. Before the issue could be resolved, Iraq invaded. In return for unity during the invasion, the emir agreed to restore the constitution and parliament.
Native Kuwaiti citizens who are at least 21 years old have the right to vote and run for political office. Naturalized citizens are required to have lived in Kuwait for a certain period of time before they can vote or run for office. Police and military personnel are not allowed to vote.
A Executive
Executive power is vested in an emir. Only male descendants of Mubarak al-Sabah, the founder of Kuwait, may become emir. A cabinet of ministers assists the emir. The most important cabinet posts, such as the ministries of defense, foreign affairs, and interior, have generally remained within the Sabah family as well. Other cabinet members are typically selected from legislators and experts in the general population.
B Legislature
Fifty members are elected to the unicameral (one-house) National Assembly every four years. The emir selects a prime minister to lead the National Assembly, and the prime minister in turn selects the cabinet ministers. The crown prince, heir apparent to the emir, has traditionally served as prime minister. The assembly’s role in day-to-day governing is limited, but it has the exclusive right to pass laws—a field where it has often displayed independence from the government. The assembly has the authority to withdraw confidence from the cabinet or from individual ministers, but it has rarely done so. Parliamentary debates are often vigorous and members feel free to criticize the government, its policies, and each other vociferously, although the emir is never personally criticized.
C Judiciary
Kuwait has three courts: primary, appellate, and supreme. There are also specialized courts for administrative, military, and constitutional cases. Most Kuwaiti law is modeled after European law. Personal matters, including marriage, divorce, and inheritance, are governed by Islamic law but handled by the regular court system. The majority of judges are Kuwaiti, although the shortage of labor prompted the government to hire judges from other Arab countries.
D Political Groups
Formal political parties in Kuwait have no legal standing. However, the government tolerates umbrella organizations with strong ideological tendencies that air many different views. Most of these organizations are either traditional and Islamic or liberal and secular (nonreligious), and within these factions are further divisions. Many leading merchant families use the country’s chamber of commerce to play a strong political role. Even without parties, political affiliations are widely known.
E Defense
Kuwaiti men are required to serve two years in the armed forces beginning at the age of 18. However, exemptions are easily granted, such as for schooling, and most Kuwaitis who wish to avoid service are able to do so. Before 1990 the army had 16,000 troops, the air force 2,200, and the navy 1,800. Following the 1991 Persian Gulf War, these numbers dropped to less than half their prewar strength. The government implemented a plan to increase overall armed strength to 30,000. In 2004 army troop forces numbered 11,000, the navy totaled 2,000 members, and the Kuwaiti air force had 2,500 personnel.
F International Alliances
Kuwait relies heavily on international alliances. Following independence in 1961, Kuwait joined the United Nations and the Arab League. At the beginning of the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), Kuwait joined other small, oil-rich states in the region to form the Gulf Cooperation Council. In 1991, after Iraq was evicted from Kuwait, Kuwait signed a ten-year defense agreement with the United States; this agreement was renewed in 2001. Agreements were also made with some European and Arab states, although Kuwait considers the United States its chief international protector. American troops are stationed west of the capital. The number of American troops in Kuwait swelled in the lead-up to the 2003 invasion of Iraq, which was launched from Kuwait.
VI HISTORY
The area around Kuwait has been settled for thousands of years, although the harsh physical conditions have led to shifting populations. The Kuwaiti island of Faylakah was home to an important Bronze Age settlement 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. This settlement was linked to the ancient trading culture of Dilmun, which was centered on the Persian Gulf island of Bahrain, to the south. The ancient Greeks built a fortress on Faylakah in the 4th century bc and knew the island as Ikaros.
A The Sabah Monarchy
In the 18th century ad several groups migrated from the interior of the Arabian Peninsula and settled at the site of present-day Kuwait city. One family, the Sabahs, established themselves as rulers. Economic activity centered around pearling and long-distance trade. In the late 19th century the British established a presence in the area to secure the lines of communication and transportation to India. In particular, the British formed close relationships with local rulers who were anxious to assert their autonomy from the Ottoman Empire, which controlled much of the area. In 1899 Mubarak al-Sabah, then ruler of Kuwait, signed an agreement with Britain, making Kuwait a protectorate of the British Empire. Britain gained control over Kuwait’s foreign and defense affairs and in return protected Kuwait and allowed the Sabahs to rule over internal affairs.
Oil was discovered in Kuwait in the late 1930s, but not until after World War II (1939-1945) did Kuwait begin to export large quantities of oil. Oil wealth transformed the society. Large-scale construction and economic development became possible, and since the government controlled oil revenues, the power of the Sabah family grew as well. Oil wealth also brought more contact with the outside world, and many younger Kuwaitis favored the pan-Arab movement, which sought greater ties among Arab countries.
B Independence
In 1961 Britain granted independence to Kuwait. Iraq, which had long claimed Kuwait was part of southern Iraq, argued that Kuwait had been separated from it illegitimately. After being pressured by Arab countries and Britain, Iraq eventually backed down from its claim. The emir of Kuwait nonetheless felt it necessary to promote national unity. He allowed elections for a constituent assembly, which took place in late 1961, and the assembly wrote a constitution the following year that guaranteed the Sabah’s dominance but allowed the people a role in government. On two occasions, in 1976 and 1986, the emir’s successors suspended parts of the constitution, but on both occasions they later consented to renew constitutional life.
In the 1960s and 1970s Kuwait became a leading, although not radical, voice in support of Arab nationalism and Palestinian claims to a homeland. Pan-Arabism was popular, especially among students, and many Kuwaiti teachers and journalists were Palestinians. In 1980, when war broke out between Iran and Iraq (see Iran-Iraq War), Kuwait helped the Arab Iraqis even though it exposed them to Iranian attacks.
C Persian Gulf War and Recent Developments
In 1990 relations with Iraq worsened. Iraq accused Kuwait of exceeding OPEC production quotas for oil and “stealing” more than $2 billion in oil from a contested reserve that lay beneath both countries. Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein also demanded Kuwait cancel the debt Iraq owed from the Iran-Iraq War and revived Iraq’s claims of sovereignty over Kuwait. When Hussein mobilized Iraqi troops on the border in late July, Kuwait had neither the military might nor the external protection to prevent an invasion. On August 2 Iraq invaded Kuwait and quickly overwhelmed Kuwaiti forces. An international force assembled in neighboring Saudi Arabia and evicted Iraq from Kuwait after six weeks of fighting in early 1991.
As the Iraqis retreated, much of Kuwait’s industry, infrastructure, and buildings were destroyed. Among the most heavily damaged were palaces of the royal family, government and other public buildings, oil wells, and roads. Looting was widespread, on both an individual and organized basis: Entire collections from libraries, museums, and laboratories were transported to Iraq. Since the war, Kuwait has been largely rebuilt.
In 1994 Iraq again massed troops near the Kuwaiti border. Following months of diplomatic pressure from the UN and military buildup by the United States and its allies, Iraq withdrew troops from the border. Hussein also signed a decree formally accepting Kuwait’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, effectively ending Iraq’s claim to Kuwait. Kuwait served as the launching point for the 2003 U.S.-led invasion of Iraq, which overthrew Hussein’s regime (see U.S.-Iraq War).
Following elections in July 2003 in which liberal candidates lost ground to Islamists and government supporters, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah was appointed as prime minister by the emir. This was the first time in the country’s history that the roles of crown prince and prime minister had been separated. The separation of powers had been a key modification demanded by reform groups.
In May 2005 the National Assembly approved an amendment to Kuwait’s election law that granted women full political rights, including the right to vote and run for political office. Previously, the constitution restricted these rights to men even though the constitution barred discrimination on the basis of gender. In June Massouma al-Mubarak was appointed minister of planning and became Kuwait’s first woman cabinet minister.
In January 2006 the emir of Kuwait died. His cousin, Sheikh Saad al-Abdullah al-Salem al-Sabah, had long been designated his successor. However, Sheikh Saad was in ill-health and unable to take the oath of office. The ruling family remained divided on succession, but after ten days it allowed the National Assembly to designate the emir: the prime minister and late emir’s brother, Sheikh Sabah al-Ahmad al-Jaber al-Sabah. In June 2006 elections for the National Assembly, 32 of the 402 candidates were women, but women failed to win a single seat. A loose coalition of Islamist and reformist candidates won a resounding victory, securing a majority of the seats, according to Kuwaiti media. The reform coalition soon clashed with the government, especially with regard to some cabinet ministers that the coalition deemed inefficient or corrupt.
Contributed By:
Nathan J. Brown
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
SOUTH KOREA
South Korea
I INTRODUCTION
South Korea, country in northeastern Asia that occupies the southern portion of the Korea Peninsula; officially known as the Republic of Korea. South Korea is bounded on the north by North Korea; on the east by the East Sea (Sea of Japan); on the southeast and south by the Korea Strait, which separates it from Japan; and on the west by the Yellow Sea. The capital and largest city is Seoul.
The nation of South Korea was established in 1948 following the post-World War II partitioning of Korea between the occupying forces of the United States in the south and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in the north. After the Korean War (1950-1953), South Korea rose from devastation to become one of the world’s largest economies in the 1990s.
II LAND AND RESOURCES OF SOUTH KOREA
South Korea occupies the southern half of the Korea Peninsula, which extends about 1,000 km (about 620 mi) southward from northeastern China. The total area of South Korea is 99,268 sq km (38,328 sq mi), including about 3,000 islands.
South Korea is a mountainous country. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30 percent of the total land area. South Korea can be divided into three general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; and a southern region, where a maze of mountains and valleys in the west contrasts with the broad basin of the Nakdong River in the southeast.
Halla-san, an extinct volcano that forms Jeju Island, is the country’s highest point at 1,950 m (6,398 ft). Jeju Island is located about 100 km (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country’s largest island, with an area of 1,845 sq km (712 sq mi).
The Taebaek range forms the country’s principal mountain system. It extends in a generally north-south direction parallel to the eastern coast. Four other mountain ranges extend from the Taebaek range, including the Sobaek range, the country’s second largest mountain system. The Sobaek range branches southwestward from the Taebaek range, dividing the southern part of the country. The highest peak of the mainland, Jiri-san (1,915 m/6,283 ft), rises in the southern portion of the Sobaek range. The mountain ranges of the mainland formed through geologic folding, in contrast to the volcanic origin of Halla-san. The mainland has no volcanic activity, and earthquakes are rare.
A Rivers
The major rivers of South Korea flow generally east to west, where they empty into the Yellow Sea, or north to south, where they empty into the Korea Strait. The country’s two longest rivers are the Han and the Nakdong, both originating in the Taebaek range and each flowing more than 500 km (more than 300 mi). The Han flows northwest, passing through Seoul and emptying into the Yellow Sea. The Nakdong flows south and empties into the Korea Strait at Busan, the country’s principal port. Another major river is the Geum, which flows through the city of Daejeon in the west central region and into the Yellow Sea. The expansive river basins of the Han, Nakdong, and Geum are the most densely settled and extensively cultivated areas of the country.
B Coastline
The coast of South Korea extends about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) and forms all but the northern border. The coast is intricately indented in the west and south, with many peninsulas and natural harbors, but is relatively smooth in the east. The eastern coast on the East Sea is much higher in overall elevation than the western coast on the Yellow Sea. Movements of Earth’s crust are slowly uplifting the eastern side of the Korea Peninsula (see Plate Tectonics). In the east the Taebaek range rises near the coast, creating a narrow coastal plain characterized by steep, rocky bluffs. The western coast is comparatively low-lying. It has extremely high tidal ranges (difference in water level between high and low tides) of up to 9 m (30 ft) and vast areas of tidal flats, some of which have been reclaimed from the sea. The southern coast is noted for its scenic peninsulas. About 3,000 islands, most of which are small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts.
C Climate
South Korea has a temperate climate, with four distinct seasons. Winters are cold and windy, and snow falls in all but the southernmost regions. Summers are hot, humid, and rainy. The weather in South Korea is affected by the Asian continent and the surrounding seas. The Asian monsoon (large-scale wind systems that reverse direction seasonally) brings frigid air from the Arctic in winter and warm, moisture-laden air from the South China Sea in summer.
In Seoul the average January temperature range is -7° to 1°C (19° to 33°F), and the average July temperature range is 22° to 29°C (71° to 83°F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior.
The average annual precipitation in Seoul is 1,370 mm (54 in), and in Busan it is 1,470 mm (58 in). Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months (June to September). The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains.
D Plants and Animals
Mixed deciduous and coniferous forests cover about three-quarters of the land. Most of the country’s old-growth forests were cleared over many centuries for use as firewood and building materials, but they have rebounded since the 1970s as the result of intensive reforestation efforts. The country’s few remaining old-growth forests are protected in nature reserves.
Protected areas make up about 4 percent of South Korea and include more than a dozen national parks. One of the world’s most interesting wildlife sanctuaries has developed in the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a border zone that has separated South Korea and North Korea since 1953. The uninhabited zone, about 4 km (about 2.5 mi) wide for most of its length, has become a haven for many kinds of wildlife, particularly migrating birds.
Principal species of trees in South Korea include pine, fir, acacia, maple, elm, poplar, and aspen. Bamboo, laurel, and evergreen oak are found in the mild southern coastal areas. Fruit trees include apple, pear, and persimmon. Woody, evergreen shrubs such as azaleas and rhododendrons are found throughout the peninsula. Another shrub, rose of Sharon, is a hardy species of hibiscus that blooms continually from July through October. It is the national flower of South Korea, where it is known as mugunghwa (Korean for “eternal flower”).
Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korea Peninsula but have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and overhunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in the wild in South Korea since the 1920s; the Asiatic black bear can still be found in some remote mountain areas. Several species of deer are indigenous to the peninsula, including the roe deer, water deer, and Siberian musk deer. The musk deer, which has been overhunted for its musk glands, is legally protected as a threatened species. Smaller mammals indigenous to the peninsula include the wild boar, red fox, badger, rabbit, squirrel, and chipmunk.
Many species of birds inhabit South Korea. The crested lark and several types of woodpecker are found only on the Korea Peninsula. The black-billed magpie is the national bird and commonly sighted. Other common birds include the jay, sparrow, robin, cuckoo, dove, pheasant, snowy egret, sea hawk, and seagull. The country is located on the migratory routes of birds such as geese, ducks, and swans that summer in northern China and Siberia and winter in warm southern climates. Most of these birds stop in South Korea on their way to or from more southern destinations, but the red-crowned crane (also known as the Siberian crane) winters in South Korea’s rice-paddy fields and grassy tidal flats from November or December through March. (Some of these birds also winter in China.) The crane is classified as endangered and is strictly protected.
E Mineral Resources
In contrast to North Korea, South Korea is relatively poor in mineral resources. The principal resources are coal (mostly anthracite), iron ore, and graphite. Other minerals include zinc, tungsten, lead, copper, gold, silver, and molybdenum. Limestone is abundant.
F Environmental Issues
South Korea’s rapid industrialization during the second half of the 20th century dramatically increased pollution levels in the country. Heavy industries became the primary contributors to air and water pollution. Industrial development entailed massive land-reclamation projects, drainage of wetlands, and damming of rivers. Population densities increased rapidly in cities where industries were located, creating urban congestion and demand for additional development. All of these factors put enormous pressures on the natural environment.
In South Korea, as in many other newly industrialized nations, environmental regulations and monitoring lagged behind the pace of development. A grassroots environmental movement emerged in South Korea in the 1980s to respond to growing public concern over health issues related to industrial pollution. In the 1990s the government became more responsive to public health concerns and began to enforce higher environmental standards.
The country’s waterways became highly polluted in the 1970s from industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and widespread soil erosion. Deforested mountainsides eroded at an alarming rate, silting rivers and streams. The health of many waterways improved dramatically by the mid-1990s, mainly due to the construction of modern sewage-treatment plants and an intensive reforestation effort. The Han River, which flows through Seoul, was once extremely polluted but is now a symbol of successful environmental cleanup and a popular recreational site.
In the 1990s automobiles outpaced industrial complexes as the principle source of urban air pollution. Smog, a mixture of airborne pollutants and fog, is a chronic problem in Seoul and other large cities. To help improve air quality in urban areas, the government has promoted the replacement of diesel-fueled buses with those that burn natural gas.
At the regional level, South Korea faces issues arising from environmental degradation throughout East Asia. South Korea and many of its regional neighbors suffer from acid rain, a type of air pollution that can occur hundreds of miles away from its source. The impact of increasing desertification and industrialization in China is of growing concern in South Korea. In recent years, huge dust storms from China’s expanding Gobi and Takla Makan deserts blew through China’s rapidly industrializing cities, mixing with toxic pollutants, and into South Korea, causing severe air-quality problems.
South Korea has ratified international treaties protecting biodiversity, endangered species, wetlands, and the ozone layer. The country has also signed treaties limiting hazardous waste and marine pollution.
III PEOPLE OF SOUTH KOREA
The population of South Korea is 49,232,844 (2008 estimate). The country’s population density of 501 persons per sq km (1,299 per sq mi) is one of the highest in the world. The majority of the population lives in the southern and western parts of the country.
The annual rate of population increase in South Korea has dropped steadily from more than 3 percent in the late 1950s to 0.37 percent in 2008. Urbanization of the country has proceeded rapidly since the 1960s, with substantial migration from rural to urban areas; 81 percent of the population is now classified as urban.
Following the official division of the Korea Peninsula in 1948, about 4 million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This sudden population increase was partly offset over the next 40 years by emigration from South Korea, especially to Japan and the United States. However, South Korea’s burgeoning economy and improved political climate in the early and mid-1990s slowed the high emigration rates typical of the late 1980s. Many of those who emigrated chose to return to South Korea.
A Principal Cities
The country’s largest city, national capital, and chief industrial center is Seoul, located in the northwest. Other major cities include Busan, the country’s principal seaport, in the southeast; Daegu, the principal commercial and manufacturing center of the south; Incheon, the major port on the Yellow Sea, near Seoul; Gwangju, the principal transportation and commercial center of the southwest; and Daejeon, a transportation hub for the west-central agricultural area and a center of science and technology. Also significant is the southeastern city of Gyeongju, which was the capital of the Silla kingdom that established unified rule of the Korea Peninsula in ad 668.
B Ethnic Groups
South Korea, like North Korea, is one of the most ethnically homogeneous countries in the world. Almost all of its people are ethnically Korean. Koreans are the descendants of Neolithic people who began to migrate to the Korea Peninsula from the northeastern Asia mainland, including the Siberian region, as early as 5000 bc. These people replaced earlier Paleolithic cultures that had inhabited some areas of the peninsula for about 40,000 years. See also Stone Age.
People of Chinese descent make up the country’s largest minority group. The resident population also includes a growing number of foreign nationals, which include migrant laborers from South and Southeast Asia, as well as business people, diplomats, and other professionals from many parts of the world.
C Language
South Korea’s national language is Korean, a distinct language that linguists have not firmly categorized in any language grouping, although it is most often included in the Altaic language family. Of all languages, Korean is most similar in grammar to Japanese. Because of a long history of contacts with China, the Korean vocabulary contains many Chinese words. Korean is written in a unique phonetic script known as Hangeul (called Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), which was introduced in 1446 under King Sejong of the Chosŏn dynasty (1392-1910).
The Korean language did not have its own alphabet before the invention of Hangeul. Until then, the Korean language was written in a modified Chinese script. The Chinese ideographs, or characters, represent words and meanings rather than pronunciation. Because they were developed for a completely different language, they did not reflect the sounds and grammar of Korean. For this reason, King Sejong commissioned a group of scholars to invent Hangeul, a script composed of phonetic symbols that accurately represent spoken Korean.
Although sophisticated, Hangeul is easily learned, as King Sejong had intended in order to increase literacy among all classes in Korea. Chinese characters remained the more prestigious, and preferred, script of the educated elite until the 20th century, when Hangeul was widely adopted in South Korea as a symbol of national identity. Today, written Korean often combines Hangeul symbols with some Chinese characters.
D Religion
Buddhism and Christianity are the largest religions in South Korea. However, many South Koreans do not adhere to any one religion and in practice often combine different belief systems in their lives. As a result, religious distinctions are often blurred.
Confucianism, more a moral philosophy than a religion, is in many ways more prominent in Korean culture than any organized religion. Confucianism was introduced from China as much as 2,000 years ago. Many of its teachings are an integral thread in the social and moral fabric of South Korea. Confucianism is evident in practices such as giving priority to education and respect to elders, as well as the performance of memorial ceremonies for ancestors.
The Mahayana form of Buddhism was introduced from India by way of China in the 4th century. Successive Korean kingdoms recognized Buddhism as the official religion from the early 500s until 1392, when the Chosŏn dynasty began to promote Neo-Confucianism as the state ideology and discourage the practice of Buddhism. Today Buddhism is prevalent throughout South Korea, and there are many Buddhist monasteries and temples. Sŏn Buddhism, which emphasizes meditation, originated in China as Chan Buddhism and was eventually transferred from Korea to Japan, where it became known as Zen Buddhism.
Daoism (Taoism), known in Korean as To-gyo (the Way), is a mystical philosophy also introduced from China about the same time as Buddhism. Many of its principles emphasizing harmony with nature, simplicity, purity, and longevity are evident in Korean culture.
Korea was officially closed to Christian missionaries until 1882, although knowledge of Christianity was evident well before then. Membership in various Christian denominations has grown considerably since the 1950s, and today South Korea is the most Christianized country in East Asia. About three-quarters of South Korea’s Christians are Protestant, while most of the remainder are Roman Catholic.
Hundreds of so-called new religions have been founded in South Korea. Most of these new religions are syncretic, meaning they blend different belief systems. One of the most prominent is the Unification Church, founded in 1954 by Sun Myung Moon. The oldest of the new religions is Ch’ŏndogyo (Teaching of the Heavenly Way), founded in 1860. It fuses elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, and shamanism.
Korean shamanism has its roots in the ancient cultures of northeastern Asia. It is the indigenous belief system and is recognized in South Korea as an important aspect of cultural heritage. Based in animistic beliefs, shamanism emphasizes the performance of healing and divination ceremonies (kut) by shamans (spiritual mediums) called mudang, most of whom are women. Although shamanism is not an organized religion, many South Koreans consult shamans when experiencing illness or other difficulties. In addition, shamanism’s precept that every natural object has a soul is a widely held belief in South Korea.
E Education
South Korea has a high literacy rate, as 98 percent of the adult population can read and write. Primary education is free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 14. Secondary education consists of three years of middle school and three years of high school. In the 2000 school year some 4 million pupils were enrolled annually in kindergarten and elementary schools and 4 million in middle and high schools, including vocational high schools. Private schools play an important role, especially above the primary level.
There are more than 300 institutions of higher education in the country, with a total annual enrollment of 3.2 million students. The principal universities are Korea University (founded in 1905), Seoul National University (1946), Ewha Women’s University (1886), and Yonsei University (1885), all in Seoul. Major universities, both private and public, are also located in provincial capitals.
IV CULTURE OF SOUTH KOREA
Historically, Korea was strongly influenced by Chinese culture and acted as a conduit of culture from China to Japan. Koreans adapted many Chinese art forms with innovation and skill, creating distinctively Korean forms. For many centuries, metalwork, sculpture, painting, and ceramics flourished throughout the Korea Peninsula. Buddhism provided one of the most significant sources for artistic expression. Confucianism, also prominent, emphasized the importance of literature and calligraphy, as well as portrait and landscape painting.
Koreans began to incorporate Western forms after Korea opened itself to the Western world in the late 1800s. During the period of Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945), indigenous traditions were strongly discouraged. Since then, however, Koreans have made a concerted effort to keep their cultural traditions alive. Koreans possess a deep appreciation for their cultural heritage. The government encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs as well as sponsorship of a national competitive exhibition each year.
Korean cultural development is generally divided into periods coinciding with political development: the Three Kingdoms period (57 bc-ad 668), the Unified Silla period (668-935), the Koryŏ (Goryeo) period (918-1392), the Chosŏn (Joseon) period (1392-1910), and the modern period (1910-present). For an overview of these political periods, see Korea.
A Literature
Korean literature can be classified chronologically into classical and modern periods. Korean classical literature combined indigenous folk traditions with the religious and philosophical principles of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. A male-dominated educated elite developed the classical body of literature from earliest times to the end of the Chosŏn dynasty in 1910. They wrote in the Chinese script. The Korean script, Hangeul, was introduced in 1446 but did not gain widespread acceptance as a literary language until the 20th century. The accessibility of Hangeul to all classes expanded the social base of Korean literature during the modern period.
A1 Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
The earliest surviving examples of literature appearing in Korean sources are the hyangga (native songs), which arose out of an ancient oral literary tradition and have both religious and folk overtones. Only 25 hyangga, some originally composed as early as the 6th century, are known to survive; 14 are preserved in an early historical text, Samguk-yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, 1285).
Buddhism became the dominant system of thought during the Unified Silla period and exercised great influence over literature and art. At the same time, the rise of Confucianism stimulated the use of Chinese as a literary language and promoted study of the Chinese classics. Hanshi—poetry composed in classical Chinese and following Chinese principles of poetry, but written by Koreans—became widespread among the literary elite of the Unified Silla.
A2 Koryŏ and Chosŏn
Buddhism remained a major influence in the literary development of the Koryŏ period. In 1236 King Kojong of the Koryŏ dynasty ordered Buddhist monks to record the entire Mahayana Buddhist canon (a collection of sutras, treatises, and commentaries known as the Tripitaka) to provide divine protection against Mongol invasions from the north (see Mongol Empire). Utilizing traditional block-printing methods, monks carved the text in the Chinese script in relief on more than 81,000 wood blocks, totaling 6,791 volumes. Today the original collection, considered to be the most complete rendering of the Mahayana Tripitaka in the world, is preserved at the Haeinsa Buddhist temple in southern South Korea, and the wood blocks continue to be used for printing the sacred texts.
Literature assumed increasing importance during the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods, when educated civil servants called yangban replaced the hereditary ruling elite. In the tradition of Confucianism, the yangban were selected by a national examination that required mastery of literature, among other subjects. Their works constitute the majority of recorded Korean literature from the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods.
The sijo, a lyrical poem with simple yet sophisticated three-stanza construction, emerged in the early 13th century, during the Koryŏ period, and subsequently flourished in the Chosŏn period. Early sijo expressed Confucian ideals using themes from nature, while later examples incorporated elements of satire and humor. Renowned sijo poets include Hwang Chin-i, an educated courtesan of the 16th century who is considered the foremost female Korean poet, and Yun Sŏn-do, a master of the form who lived from 1587 to 1671. The writing of sijo has endured into the 21st century and, much like Japanese haiku, has gained international popularity.
A3 Modern Period
In the modern period, dating from the early 20th century, Korean writers adapted many different Western literary influences—notably realism, existentialism, and surrealism—in their efforts to express a series of difficult national experiences: Japanese colonial rule, the partition of Korea and ensuing Korean War, and a period of authoritarian rule. One of the most important achievements of modern Korean literature is the 16-volume epic novel T’oji (The Land), written by Park Kyŏng-ni over a period of 25 years (1969 to 1994). The work presents a vivid panorama of Korea from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century.
B Art
Contemporary Korean artists employ both traditional and Western forms in their works. Traditional handicrafts such as lacquerwork (often inlaid with mother-of-pearl), embroidery, and ceramics are produced for artistic and commercial purposes. Modern Korean art draws on a long history of cultural development and artistic achievement.
B1 Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
Korean art was produced primarily for religious purposes during the Three Kingdoms period (57 bc to ad 668). Gilt bronze statues depicting the Buddha and other deities demonstrated Korean skill in metallurgy. Royal burial tombs contained ornately crafted gold crowns, jewelry, and other ornaments with crescent-shaped jade pendants. The design of these pieces suggests that ancient shamanistic influences remained strong in Korean culture after the introduction of Buddhism in the 4th century.
Koreans produced a rich variety of metal, stone, and ceramic works during the Unified Silla period, which ended in 935. A bronze bell made in 771 for King Sŏngdŏk of the Silla dynasty ranks as one of Asia’s largest cast-bronze bells. Temple building proliferated, most notably in the area of the Silla capital, Gyeongju. The Sŏkkuram cave temple, built high on a mountain ridge near Gyeongju in the 8th century, contains a remarkable example of a seated Buddha carved from granite.
B2 Koryŏ
Artisans of the Unified Silla period attained the technology for highly refined, glazed stoneware. This development laid the foundation for the ceramics of the following Koryŏ period, when artisans achieved an unsurpassed level of skill in the green-glaze stoneware called celadon.
B3 Chosŏn
The art of the Chŏson period is noted for the development of landscape painting, exemplified in the works of Chŏng Sŏn, notably The Diamond Mountains. Paintings also documented important historical events, such as battles and foreign diplomatic visits. Calligraphy in Chinese characters, practiced since the Three Kingdoms period, gained importance. Calligraphy and painting flourished among the educated elite until the early 16th century. During the Chosŏn period, the Neo-Confucian state ideology discouraged the practice of Buddhism, which had long been a source of artistic inspiration. Many art forms, including ceramics, became more utilitarian, with few embellishments. In the early 20th century, Western influences infused Korean art with new concepts and methods.
C Architecture
Korean architecture incorporates Eastern philosophical principles that emphasize harmony with nature and the universe. It is believed that architecture based in these principles can foster social and political harmony as well. Temple architecture followed forms introduced from China. One of South Korea’s renowned Buddhist temples, Pulguksa, was built in the 8th century under the royal patronage of the Silla kingdom, which formally adopted Buddhism in the 6th century.
The three surviving royal palaces in South Korea date from the Chosŏn period and are located in Seoul, the capital of the Chosŏn dynasty. Changdeok Palace, originally constructed in 1405, is the best-preserved palace and a World Heritage Site. Korean palaces largely followed Chinese models. They were built of wood, with stone foundations and tile-covered rooftops that extended beyond the main structure to form broad eaves. The undersides of the eaves were colorfully painted in intricate designs.
During the period of Japanese colonial rule from 1910 to 1945, many historic sites and artifacts were destroyed or confiscated. Western influences became more predominant. Since the Korean War (1950-1953), which also damaged historic sites, many monuments have been reconstructed, and priority is given to their continued preservation.
See also Korean Art and Architecture.
D Music and Dance
D1 Traditional Forms
South Korea has a rich oral tradition consisting of lyric folk songs, shaman chants, myths, legends, and folktales. Korean folk songs are diverse and numerous. They include ceremonial and work songs as well as popular songs about everyday life. “Arirang,” one of South Korea’s best-known folk songs, has numerous variations.
Lyrical or narrative, folk songs are accompanied by lively and emotive music played by percussion instruments such as drums, cymbals, and gongs; and the oboe (a double-reed wind instrument). One type of traditional song, the p’ansori, is a lengthy narrative that runs through several episodes and can continue for several hours. Accompanied by the beat of an hourglass drum, p’ansori is both spoken and sung.
Ritual shaman music accompanies chants that are intended to induce a trance state in the shaman (mudang), a religious figure who is thought to commune with spirits. The mudang ritual performances rely heavily on dance and music, as well as colorful costumes and other props.
Formal types of music and dance were first performed for the royal court of the Silla kingdom, and succeeding dynasties continued this tradition. Today various troupes perform court music and dance. Types of songs include the kagok, a long lyrical song, the kasa, a slow narrative song, and the sijo, a musical rendition of Korean sijo poems.
Sandae-guk (mountain performance) is an improvised masked drama that features complex dances drawn from shamanism and songs based on folk music. Originally developed for the royal court, the form lost favor with the Chosŏn rulers in 1634. Thereafter it gained great popularity in rural areas, employing satire and bawdy humor to criticize the ruling class. See also Asian Theater.
D2 Western Forms
Western schools of music and dance are a more recent tradition in South Korea. The National Dance Company, founded in 1962, embraced modern dance and classical ballet genres. In 1973 the National Ballet Company was formed out of the National Dance Company, which then focused solely on modern dance. A private ballet company, Universal Ballet, was established in 1984. European modern ballet and American ballet styles, such as the neoclassicism of George Balanchine, became influential in the late 1980s. Modern dance has followed Western styles, including the highly expressive style of Martha Graham, introduced in South Korea in the 1960s, and a playful and satirical French style introduced in the 1980s. The Changmu Dance Company has pioneered experimental dance forms.
E Cultural Institutions
The Seoul Arts Center is the national performing arts center and houses five resident companies: the National Opera, the National Ballet, the National Chorus, the Seoul Performing Arts Company, and the Korean Symphony Orchestra. The center features five state-of-the-art facilities: the Music Hall and Calligraphy Hall (both opened in 1988), the Art Gallery and Arts Library (1990), and the Opera House (1993).
Several museums are located in Seoul. The National Museum, founded in Seoul in 1945, has an extensive collection of Korean archaeological, cultural, and folklore artifacts. Branches of the museum are located in eight other major cities. Seoul is also home to the National Museum of Modern Art, the National Folklore Museum, and the War Memorial Museum.
The National Library of Korea, headquartered in Seoul with branches throughout the country, houses a collection of more than 4 million volumes. The libraries of Seoul National University and Yonsei University each contain more than 1 million volumes, including important Korean archives.
V ECONOMY OF SOUTH KOREA
South Korea’s economy was traditionally based on agriculture but experienced extraordinarily rapid industrialization beginning in the early 1960s. After the Korean War (1950-1953), economic aid, especially from the United States, was important to the economic recovery of the country. Subsequently, the government of South Korea gave priority to the development of manufacturing, which was driven by export-led growth. In the span of a generation, South Korea grew from one of the world’s poorest countries to one of its most promising industrial powers.
Since the late 1980s, the government has allowed market forces to determine economic development. Previously, the government had exerted strong influence through a series of five-year economic plans, which had promoted industrialization. To achieve the goals of these plans, the government directly intervened in the economy by offering strong incentives to businesses, regulating foreign exchange, and implementing highly centralized fiscal policies.
South Korea’s gross domestic product (GDP) expanded by more than 9 percent yearly between the mid-1960s and the mid-1990s. By the mid-1990s economists referred to South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan as Asia’s “Four Tigers” because they rapidly achieved high economic growth and a standard of living among the highest in the world. Nevertheless, South Korea was one of many Asian countries that suffered economic decline during a regional economic crisis in 1997 and 1998. During the crisis, several of South Korea’s largest conglomerates, called chaebol, went bankrupt and collapsed.
The economic crisis highlighted underlying structural weaknesses in South Korea’s economy. Close links between government, banks, and chaebol had allowed the conglomerates to borrow heavily from domestic financial institutions to help them finance high-risk investments. In consequence, the chaebol accrued extremely high levels of debt. The collapse of chaebol, which created a high incidence of nonperforming loans, caused havoc in the banking sector. Meanwhile, the value of the national currency plummeted, losing more than half its value by the end of 1997, and inflation and unemployment soared.
In December 1997 South Korea accepted one of the largest aid packages ever arranged with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The terms of the aid package required South Korea to pursue economic reform, including restructuring of the corporate and financial sectors. The South Korean government transferred government-owned assets to the private sector, opened the domestic market to more foreign competition, and required chaebol to lower their debt-to-equity ratios. The country’s economy recovered in 1999 and sustained growth into the early 2000s. In addition, South Korea repaid all its IMF emergency loans by mid-2001.
In 2005 South Korea’s annual budget figures showed revenues of $168.4 billion and expenditures of $184.1 billion. The GDP in 2006 stood at $888 billion.
A Labor
In 2006 the total labor force was 25 million. Of this figure, some 8 percent were engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 27 percent in industry; and 65 percent in services. Women make up 41 percent of the labor force. The principal labor organization is the Federation of Korean Trade Unions, with a membership of about 1.5 million.
B Agriculture
Land distribution programs were carried out in South Korea in the late 1940s, creating an agricultural system composed primarily of small, owner-operated farms. The rapid industrialization of South Korea and increasing urbanization has diminished the importance of farming to the country’s economy, and the number of families dependent on agriculture for their livelihood steadily declined beginning in the 1970s.
About 17 percent of the land in South Korea is under cultivation. More than half of the agricultural land is devoted to rice, the principal food crop. Other leading crops include soybeans, red peppers, barley, cabbages, watermelons, garlic, onions, radishes, white potatoes, red beans, corn, and sweet potatoes. Many types of fruit are grown, especially apples, oranges, grapes, persimmons, pears, and peaches. Other crops include cotton, hemp, and silk. Livestock include pigs, cattle, and goats.
C Forestry and Fishing
Since the late 1960s South Korea has become one of the world’s leading fishing nations, with a modern fleet operating in distant waters. Other vessels fish in nearby coastal waters. The ports of Ulsan and Masan have been developed as deep-sea fishing bases with fish-processing plants. The catch in 2005 was 2.7 million metric tons. Squid, mollusks, anchovies, tuna, walleye pollock, and mackerel make up the principal catches.
South Korea imports the majority of its lumber, but reforestation has provided some tree plantations for commercial use. The country’s timber harvest in 2006 yielded 4.9 million cubic meters (173 million cubic feet) of lumber.
D Mining
South Korea has limited mineral resources. The output of anthracite coal, the country’s leading mineral resource, was 3.3 million metric tons in 2003. Zinc ore output was 6,000 metric tons. Small amounts of graphite, iron ore, lead, tungsten, gold, silver, and kaolin (a fine clay) are extracted. Limestone mining is significant, with much of the yield used in the production of cement, the principal material used in new construction.
E Manufacturing
The division of the Korea Peninsula in 1948 created two unbalanced economic units. North Korea held most of the natural resources and heavy industries developed during occupation by the Japanese; South Korea contained most of the agricultural resources and a large labor pool. Industrial development in the south concentrated initially on light manufacturing of export-oriented items, especially in labor-intensive industries such as textiles and apparel, footwear, and foodstuffs. Beginning in the early 1970s, however, emphasis was placed on heavy industry. In the 1980s and 1990s Korean manufacturers branched into high-technology industries, such as computer components and semiconductors. Manufacturing is dominated by chaebol, large conglomerate companies with greatly diversified interests.
South Korea is an important producer of telecommunications and sound equipment and transportation equipment. Shipbuilding is a major industry. Other leading industries include the manufacture of chemicals, machinery, food products and beverages, basic metals, and textiles.
F Energy
Thermal facilities that primarily burn imported petroleum generated 61 percent of South Korea’s electric power in 2003. In the 1970s the country began to build nuclear power plants in an effort to lessen its dependence on imported oil, and in 2003 nuclear plants generated 38 percent of the country’s electricity. Another 1 percent came from hydroelectric installations. Annual output of electricity was 326 billion kilowatt-hours.
G Transportation
A well-developed highway system connects the major urban centers of South Korea. The country has about 100,279 km (about 62,310 mi) of main roads. The state-owned railroad system consists of 3,392 km (2,108 mi) of lines, with construction under way on a high-speed line connecting Seoul and Busan. In May 2007 passenger rail links between North and South Korea were established in a one-time trial. Although largely symbolic, many South Koreans regarded the brief resumption of passenger train traffic between the two countries as a landmark event. The country’s chief ports include Busan, Incheon, Mokpo, and Gunsan. Its merchant fleet numbers 2,946 vessels.
Korean Air Lines and Asiana Airlines provide domestic and foreign service. Incheon International Airport, which opened in April 2001, is the hub for international flights. Located 52 km (32 mi) west of downtown Seoul, the airport covers 5,600 hectares (13,800 acres) on reclaimed tidal lands between two offshore islands.
H Communications
Mass media have assumed large importance in South Korea. Freedom of the press has been constitutionally guaranteed since 1987, when a democratic system of government was instituted. This resulted in the reemergence of newspapers that had been banned under the preceding military regime, as well as the establishment of many new newspapers. South Korea has 139 daily newspapers, some with national circulation. In 2000 there were 364 televisions and 1,039 radios for every 1,000 people in South Korea. In 2005 there were 794 cellular telephone subscribers per 1,000 people.
I Currency and Banking
The unit of currency in South Korea is the won (955 won equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). The Bank of Korea is the bank of issue.
J Foreign Trade
Following the disruption of trade during the Korean War and its aftermath, exports increased at the remarkable annual rate of 27 percent from 1965 to 1980 and increased sixfold from 1980 to 1995. The country, with few natural resources and a relatively small domestic market, employed its skilled labor force to produce goods for export, thereby fueling its rapid economic growth. In 1996 South Korea became a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), an international organization that works to coordinate the economic policies of industrialized nations.
Major imports (many of which are used to make goods for export) include industrial machinery, petroleum and petroleum products, electrical equipment, iron and steel, transportation equipment, and chemical products. Leading exports are electrical machinery, fabrics, road vehicles, telecommunication and sound equipment, iron and steel, metal goods, computer components, and apparel. Imports in 2004 were valued at $224.5 billion and exports were worth $253.8 billion.
VI GOVERNMENT OF SOUTH KOREA
South Korea has been governed under six constitutions, adopted in 1948, 1960, 1962, 1972, 1980, and 1988. Each constitution signifies a new South Korean republic. Thus, the government under the 1988 constitution is known as the Sixth Republic. The most recent constitution was approved by referendum in October 1987 and went into effect in February 1988.
A Executive
Executive power is vested in a president who is directly elected by popular vote to a nonrenewable five-year term. The president is responsible for deciding all important government policies. The president performs executive functions through the cabinet, called the State Council. The prime minister is the principal executive assistant to the president. The president appoints the prime minister with the approval of the legislature, or National Assembly. The president heads the State Council and appoints its members on the recommendations of the prime minister. The council must include at least 15 and no more than 30 government ministers, including the prime minister. The prime minister and the members of the State Council have the right to supervise the administrative ministries, deliberate major national policies, and voice opinions at meetings of the National Assembly.
The 1988 constitution imposes limits on the powers of the president. In times of national crisis, the president may take emergency measures such as imposing martial law, but such measures must be approved by the legislature. The president may not dissolve the legislature or suspend basic legal rights.
B Legislature
Legislative power is vested in the unicameral (single chamber) National Assembly. The assembly’s members are elected by a dual-ballot system in which voters cast two votes: one for a specific candidate and one for a party under proportional representation. This system was introduced in the 2004 legislative elections to allow for a more accurate reflection of party preferences. Under proportional representation, members are selected from party lists in proportion to the overall vote. All members serve four-year terms.
C Judiciary
The highest court in South Korea is the Supreme Court, consisting of 14 justices (including the chief justice). Below the Supreme Court are five appellate courts, located in Gwangju, Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, and Seoul. District courts, which are located in the major cities, have jurisdiction over civil and criminal cases of the first instance. South Korea also provides for a Constitutional Court, which passes judgment on the constitutionality of laws (when requested to do so by the courts), impeachment matters, and the dissolution of political parties.
D Local Government
For purposes of local administration, South Korea is divided into nine provinces and seven cities with provincial status. The nine provinces are Gyeonngi Province, Gangwon Province, North Chungcheong Province, South Chungcheong Province, North Gyeongsang Province, South Gyeongsang Province, North Jeolla Province, South Jeolla Province, and Jeju Province. The seven provincial cities are Incheon, Gwangju, Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, Seoul, and Ulsan. The governors of the provinces and mayors of the seven provincial cities are elected by the people every four years.
E Political Parties
The main political parties in South Korea are the liberal Uri (Our Open) Party, the conservative Grand National Party (GNP), the centrist Millennium Democratic Party (MDP), and the left-wing Democratic Labor Party (DLP).
F Social Services
In 2004 South Korea had 554 people for every physician. The government sponsors many social services, including some medical insurance programs and welfare and retirement plans.
G Defense
The president is commander in chief of the armed forces. In 2004 total active military forces stood at 687,700. Membership was as follows: army, 560,000; navy, 63,000; and air force, 64,700. Reserve forces total 4.5 million. Thousands of U.S. troops are also stationed in the country.
VII HISTORY OF SOUTH KOREA
At the end of World War II in 1945, the Korea Peninsula was liberated from Japanese colonial rule, which had been in place since 1910. To fill the power vacuum, Soviet forces occupied the northern portion of the Korea Peninsula, and United States forces occupied the southern portion. This political division was considered only temporary, but subsequent reunification efforts failed. In 1948 the division became official when the Republic of Korea, backed by the United States and the United Nations (UN), was established south of the 38th parallel, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, backed by the Soviet Union and China, was established north of the same latitude. For the history of the Korea Peninsula before 1948, see Korea.
The Republic of Korea, commonly known as South Korea, was proclaimed on August 15, 1948. Its first president, Syngman Rhee, was elected by a legislature that had been popularly elected in May 1948. The legislative elections were sponsored and supervised by UN representatives. Left-wing groups had boycotted these elections, and virtually all the legislators were firm anti-Communists, as was their chosen president.
A Unstable Beginnings
The main objective of the first South Korean government was the suppression of leftist groups, some of them independent but many supported by the Communist government of North Korea. The United States, concerned about leftist guerrilla activity and the potential of invasion from North Korea, delayed withdrawing its occupation forces in South Korea until June 1949.
However, the security situation remained extremely tenuous in the Korea Peninsula. The North Korean leader, Kim Il Sung, sought to unify the Korea Peninsula under Communist rule. In June 1950 he launched a full-scale military invasion of South Korea, thereby starting the Korean War. The United States immediately gained UN Security Council support for the defense of South Korea and committed American ground troops to the war. The Korean War was ultimately one of the most destructive and deadly wars of the 20th century. Perhaps as many as 4 million Koreans died throughout the peninsula, the majority of them civilians.
During the war, South Korean president Rhee governed under martial law, and he used his power to force the legislature to adopt a constitutional amendment providing for popular election of the president. Rhee was popularly elected to a second term in 1952.
In July 1953 an armistice agreement signed by the UN, North Korea, and China—South Korea refused to sign—ended the fighting of the Korean War. Without a formal peace treaty, however, North Korea and South Korea technically remained at war. Their shared border, known as the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), remained heavily fortified and guarded on both sides. With the consent of South Korea, the United States continued to maintain a military presence in the country.
South Korea made a slow recovery from the war. Rhee was unable to produce any significant economic development despite much aid from the United States. He easily won reelection in 1956 and 1960, but blatant manipulation of the 1960 elections led to nationwide protests that culminated in Rhee’s forced resignation on April 27, 1960. The moderate government of John M. Chang that followed Rhee’s departure implemented liberalizing reforms in many areas, but economic development still lagged. Military leaders, fearing growing instability and wary of student agitation for talks with North Korea, staged a coup on May 16, 1961.
B Military Rule under Park Chung Hee
The ruling military junta, led by Park Chung Hee, dissolved the parliament, governed by decree, and banned all political activity until October 1963, when Park was narrowly elected president. As president, Park launched economic reforms designed to industrialize South Korea. Despite widespread public opposition, Park signed a treaty with Japan in 1965, dropping Korean demands for war reparations in return for economic aid. Japanese capital soon began to flow into Korea. The country also earned foreign exchange by sending troops and contract workers to aid the United States during the Vietnam War (1959-1975). This led to a dramatic spurt of industrialization and export-oriented growth.
Little was left to chance in Park’s government. Politics were dominated by his Democratic Republican Party (DRP), which by its control of funds and patronage easily overwhelmed all opposition groups. In addition, the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA), responsible for intelligence and anti-North operations, carried out surveillance and intimidation of political dissidents.
In the presidential election of 1971, Park narrowly defeated the opposition candidate, Kim Dae Jung of the New Democratic Party (NDP). Park and his ruling DRP quickly moved to consolidate power before the 1973 legislative elections. In October 1972 Park’s government declared martial law, dissolved the legislature, and suspended the 1962 constitution. The following month, the government introduced a new constitution, known as the Yushin (Revitalizing Reform) constitution, which greatly expanded presidential powers and allowed Park to remain in office indefinitely.
The political opposition immediately began agitating for constitutional reforms. However, Park issued numerous emergency measures that banned activities of the political opposition. The Presidential Emergency Measure for Safeguarding National Security, issued in 1975, banned student demonstrations. Many political dissidents who agitated for constitutional reform were arrested and jailed. Even as civil rights were suppressed or violated, rapid industrialization of the country achieved spectacular economic growth. South Korea’s exports flooded Western markets, and the country ceased its dependence on foreign aid.
C Regime of Chun Doo Hwan
In October 1979 military forces violently suppressed an antigovernment uprising in the southern cities of Busan and Masan. Later that month, President Park was assassinated by Kim Jae Kyu, the director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (now known as the National Intelligence Service). Premier Choi Kyu Hah became acting president, and the government proclaimed martial law. In December army general Chun Doo Hwan staged a coup within the armed forces, seizing control as martial law commander. Chun emerged as the dominant leader in the country, overshadowing President Choi.
Demonstrations erupted in many cities demanding an end to martial law and the adoption of a new constitution. In May 1980 Chun arrested leaders of the political opposition and banned all political activity. Despite these restrictions, political dissidents staged a pro-democracy protest that developed into a massive uprising in the city of Gwangju in mid-May. During the ensuing military crackdown, army troops killed at least two hundred civilian protesters.
In August 1980 President Choi suddenly stepped down, and Chun secured the presidency by indirect vote. A new constitution, providing for a single seven-year presidential term but also retaining many of the Yushin-type control mechanisms, went into effect in April 1981. President Chun’s regime scored a diplomatic coup when the International Olympic Committee designated Seoul as the site for the 1988 Summer Olympic Games.
D Democratic Reforms
Following a series of mass protests in June 1987, President Chun promised democratic reforms, including direct presidential elections. Voters adopted a new, democratic constitution in a referendum in October, and Roh Tae Woo, the candidate of the ruling Democratic Justice Party (DJP) and a longtime supporter of Chun, was elected president in December. The new constitution took effect in February 1988.
In the 1988 elections to the National Assembly, the DJP won the most seats but failed to secure a majority. The Peace and Democracy Party (PDP) of Kim Dae Jung became the main opposition party. Later that year, South Korea hosted the Summer Olympics. In 1990 the DJP merged with two other parties to form the Democratic Liberal Party (DLP). This maneuver secured the new party an absolute majority in the legislature. In March 1991 the first local elections in 30 years were held. DLP candidates won a majority of posts.
Although some democratic reforms had taken hold in South Korea, distrust of government ran deep. Students and workers regularly staged protests and strikes from 1988 to 1991. The annual anniversary of the 1980 massacre in Gwangju was commemorated with mass demonstrations that resulted in clashes between protesters and police. Public unrest escalated in 1991 with the revelation of a government bribery scandal and the beating to death of a student protester by police. In response to weeks of widespread demonstrations precipitated by the fatal beating, the government relaxed the National Security Law and reined in police activity.
In the presidential elections of December 1992, South Koreans elected Kim Young Sam, a former political dissident who had merged his opposition party into the DLP in 1990. Soon after taking office, Kim launched an anticorruption reform program that included publicizing the assets of politicians, senior civil servants, and some judiciary and military members. Resignations followed from many people whose publicized wealth was clearly disproportionate to their income levels. In December 1993 the government agreed to open the heavily protected Korean rice market to imports. The resulting public outcry, which included violent demonstrations in Seoul, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Hwang In Sung and his cabinet, although the decision to allow rice imports was not reversed.
In late 1995 Kim’s anticorruption campaign resulted in the arrest of his predecessors, Chun and Roh. They were put on trial on charges they had accepted hundreds of millions of dollars in bribes from business interests while in office. Both former presidents were subsequently put on trial for their alleged roles in the 1979 military coup that brought Chun to power and the May 1980 massacre of pro-democracy demonstrators in Gwangju. In 1996 Chun and Roh were convicted of mutiny, sedition, and corruption. Chun received the death sentence (reduced to life imprisonment on appeal), while Roh received 22y years in prison (reduced to 17 years on appeal). In addition, their corruption convictions required them to pay millions of dollars in fines.
Meanwhile, Kim Young Sam denied allegations from the opposition that he had personally received money for his 1992 presidential campaign from Roh’s stash of illegal funds. In December 1995 Kim renamed the DLP the New Korea Party (NKP) in an effort to distance the party from its association with the military regimes of Chun and Roh.
In January 1996 Kim admitted in a televised address to the nation that before becoming president he had accepted political donations from business interests; however, he denied the funds were bribes for political favors. In late March 1996 Kim’s former aide of 20 years, Chang Hak Ro, was arrested on bribery charges, casting doubt on Kim’s anticorruption campaign just weeks before the April parliamentary elections. The NKP lost control of the National Assembly in the elections; shortly thereafter, however, it was able to recruit 11 independent legislators to regain its 150-seat majority.
E Economic Crisis
In 1997 the South Korean government was rocked by further scandals, this time involving fraudulent loans, which resulted in a cabinet reshuffle. An economic crisis developed in December when investors, already shaken by a regional economic crisis in Asia, lost confidence in the debt-laden South Korean economy. The currency plummeted in value, leading to a rapid depletion of South Korea’s foreign currency reserves. This in turn threatened the ability of the government, banks, and industries to repay foreign debt. Furthermore, the unemployment rate soared as unstable businesses declared bankruptcy. In November the government accepted one of the largest aid packages ever arranged with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The agreement required South Korea to implement tough austerity measures, such as reductions in public spending, and tax and interest rate hikes.
The economic crisis led to widespread dissatisfaction with Kim Young Sam’s government. In the presidential election of December 1997, voters elected Kim Dae Jung, a longtime opposition leader and pro-democracy advocate, by a narrow margin. The vote marked the first time an opposition politician won the presidency in South Korea. He was also the first politician from the country’s southwestern region to become president. Previously, all presidents had hailed from the country’s politically dominant southeastern region. Shortly after the elections, President Kim Young Sam pardoned former presidents Chun and Roh, releasing them from prison, at the request of President-elect Kim Dae Jung. Both Kims agreed the gesture of clemency would help reconcile regional antagonisms that surfaced during the hotly contested elections, in the interest of uniting the country behind efforts to resolve the economic crisis.
To address the economic crisis, Kim’s government vigorously pursued economic restructuring, and Kim emerged as a champion of deregulation, privatization, and foreign investment in South Korea. He led the country through short-term hardships associated with the reforms, including rising inflation and unemployment. In 1999 South Korea’s economy made a strong recovery.
F Relations with North Korea
Relations between North Korea and South Korea were tense during the late 1960s and at times during the 1970s and 1980s. Both countries were admitted to the UN in September 1991. Three months later the two countries signed a nonaggression pact. However, relations between them continued to be troubled. Allegations about North Korea’s possible nuclear weapons development program strained relations in 1994. In December 1995 a U.S.-led consortium that included South Korea reached an agreement with North Korea over the suspension of its suspected nuclear weapons program. Under this agreement, South Korea agreed to help finance the replacement of two of North Korea’s nuclear reactors with modern versions designed to produce less weapons-grade plutonium.
In a further bid to open dialogue with North Korea, South Korea approved a $19.2-million investment package involving three joint-venture projects in North Korea. South Korea also extended emergency food aid, which was desperately needed in North Korea after massive summer floods destroyed many of the country’s agricultural crops.
In 1998 Kim Dae Jung encouraged economic contact with North Korea and offered unconditional economic and humanitarian aid in the hope of improving political relations. His approach, known as the Sunshine Policy, thawed relations between the two countries. In June 2000 Kim and North Korean leader Kim Jong Il held talks in P’yŏngyang, the North Korean capital, and agreed in principle to promote reconciliation and economic cooperation between the two countries. This landmark event was the first face-to-face meeting between the leaders of North Korea and South Korea since the two republics were founded in 1948.
The improved relations between the two governments led to the first authorized cross-border visits of family members separated since the Korean War, the start of mail service between the two countries, and agreement by both sides to reconnect road and rail links long severed by the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). In the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games held in Sydney, Australia, in September, athletes from North Korea and South Korea symbolically paraded together under the neutral flag of the Korea Peninsula, although they competed separately in the games. The following month, Kim Dae Jung was awarded the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his efforts to bring about reconciliation with North Korea.
However, relations between the two countries subsequently became severely strained over the North’s nuclear program. North Korea renounced previous agreements due to deteriorating relations with the United States, and in 2005 the country announced that it had become a nuclear weapons state. Then North Korea tested a nuclear weapon in an underground explosion in October 2006. South Korea and other nearby nations were suddenly faced with a demonstrated nuclear threat within striking range of their populations. South Korea participated in a renewed and urgent series of six-nation talks with North Korea that also included China, Japan, Russia, and the United States. Under an agreement reached in February 2007, North Korea began taking steps toward dismantling its nuclear weapons program in return for substantial fuel and food aid. In July inspectors with the International Atomic Inspection Agency (IAEA) verified that North Korea had shut down its main nuclear reactor and all other nuclear facilities at its Yǒngbyǒn complex. Additional aid incentives were offered in exchange for North Korea to fully disclose and disable all of its nuclear facilities and programs. See also Nuclear Weapons Proliferation.
As a sign of easing tensions on the Korea Peninsula, in May 2007 North Korea and South Korea exchanged the first passenger train visits since the rebuilding of rail links across their shared border. This was followed in October with a historic summit in P’yŏngyang between Kim Jong Il and South Korean president Roh Moo Hyun—the second face-to-face meeting of Korean leaders since the Korean War. The talks resulted in a joint declaration, which outlined specific projects for building closer economic ties and stated a bilateral commitment in working toward a formal peace treaty for the Korean War. South Korea agreed to fund several capital improvement projects in North Korea to reduce the economic gap with its impoverished northern neighbor, a necessary step toward the South’s long-term goal of reunification. Among other projects, South Korea agreed to build a special economic zone in the North Korean port of Haeju, as well as a new railway and highway linking the Kaesŏng Industrial Complex to other cities. The Kaesŏng complex, which South Korea developed in the North as part of the 2000 summit agreement, had launched manufacturing operations in 2004. In November 2007 the prime ministers from both countries met for additional talks on improving bilateral ties.
G Other Developments
In 2002 South Korea and Japan cohosted the World Cup, one of the most popular international sporting events. It marked the first time the soccer tournament was held in Asia, and the first time it was jointly hosted by two countries.
Kim was constitutionally barred from seeking a second term. The candidate of the Millennium Democratic Party (MDP), Roh Moo Hyun, won the December 2002 presidential election. Roh had staked his campaign on the continuation of Kim’s so-called Sunshine Policy of diplomatic and economic engagement with North Korea. Despite the growing détente on the Korea Peninsula achieved through this policy, the situation became increasingly unstable due to tensions between the United States and North Korea over the nuclear issue.
In March 2004 Roh was impeached by a two-thirds vote in the National Assembly for allegedly violating South Korea’s electoral laws. It was the first time in South Korea’s history that a president was impeached. The electoral laws require government officials to remain neutral in election campaigns, but Roh had indicated his support for the Uri Party prior to the legislative elections scheduled for April 2004. The Grand National Party (GNP) and Millennium Democratic Party (MDP), which together controlled the legislature, initiated the vote to impeach Roh. Although Roh had been elected as the candidate of the MDP in 2002, he later split with the party. A faction of the MDP left the party and formed the Uri Party to support Roh.
Public opinion polls showed that the majority of South Koreans did not support the impeachment. In the April elections both the GNP and the MDP lost seats in the National Assembly while the Uri Party more than tripled its representation and gained a slim majority with 152 of 299 seats. It was the first time in more than 40 years that a liberal party won control of the legislature. The Constitutional Court subsequently ruled that Roh’s infraction of the electoral law was too minor to warrant impeachment and dismissed the case against him.
The presidential election held in December 2007 gave the conservative GNP candidate, Lee Myung-bak, a landslide victory. A former chief executive of Hyundai and mayor of Seoul, Lee campaigned on a promise to increase the economic growth of South Korea.
Reviewed By:
Mark Peterson
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
I INTRODUCTION
South Korea, country in northeastern Asia that occupies the southern portion of the Korea Peninsula; officially known as the Republic of Korea. South Korea is bounded on the north by North Korea; on the east by the East Sea (Sea of Japan); on the southeast and south by the Korea Strait, which separates it from Japan; and on the west by the Yellow Sea. The capital and largest city is Seoul.
The nation of South Korea was established in 1948 following the post-World War II partitioning of Korea between the occupying forces of the United States in the south and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in the north. After the Korean War (1950-1953), South Korea rose from devastation to become one of the world’s largest economies in the 1990s.
II LAND AND RESOURCES OF SOUTH KOREA
South Korea occupies the southern half of the Korea Peninsula, which extends about 1,000 km (about 620 mi) southward from northeastern China. The total area of South Korea is 99,268 sq km (38,328 sq mi), including about 3,000 islands.
South Korea is a mountainous country. Lowlands, located primarily in the west and southeast, constitute only 30 percent of the total land area. South Korea can be divided into three general regions: an eastern region of high mountain ranges and narrow coastal plains; a western region of broad coastal plains, river basins, and rolling hills; and a southern region, where a maze of mountains and valleys in the west contrasts with the broad basin of the Nakdong River in the southeast.
Halla-san, an extinct volcano that forms Jeju Island, is the country’s highest point at 1,950 m (6,398 ft). Jeju Island is located about 100 km (about 60 mi) off the southern coast of South Korea. It is the country’s largest island, with an area of 1,845 sq km (712 sq mi).
The Taebaek range forms the country’s principal mountain system. It extends in a generally north-south direction parallel to the eastern coast. Four other mountain ranges extend from the Taebaek range, including the Sobaek range, the country’s second largest mountain system. The Sobaek range branches southwestward from the Taebaek range, dividing the southern part of the country. The highest peak of the mainland, Jiri-san (1,915 m/6,283 ft), rises in the southern portion of the Sobaek range. The mountain ranges of the mainland formed through geologic folding, in contrast to the volcanic origin of Halla-san. The mainland has no volcanic activity, and earthquakes are rare.
A Rivers
The major rivers of South Korea flow generally east to west, where they empty into the Yellow Sea, or north to south, where they empty into the Korea Strait. The country’s two longest rivers are the Han and the Nakdong, both originating in the Taebaek range and each flowing more than 500 km (more than 300 mi). The Han flows northwest, passing through Seoul and emptying into the Yellow Sea. The Nakdong flows south and empties into the Korea Strait at Busan, the country’s principal port. Another major river is the Geum, which flows through the city of Daejeon in the west central region and into the Yellow Sea. The expansive river basins of the Han, Nakdong, and Geum are the most densely settled and extensively cultivated areas of the country.
B Coastline
The coast of South Korea extends about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) and forms all but the northern border. The coast is intricately indented in the west and south, with many peninsulas and natural harbors, but is relatively smooth in the east. The eastern coast on the East Sea is much higher in overall elevation than the western coast on the Yellow Sea. Movements of Earth’s crust are slowly uplifting the eastern side of the Korea Peninsula (see Plate Tectonics). In the east the Taebaek range rises near the coast, creating a narrow coastal plain characterized by steep, rocky bluffs. The western coast is comparatively low-lying. It has extremely high tidal ranges (difference in water level between high and low tides) of up to 9 m (30 ft) and vast areas of tidal flats, some of which have been reclaimed from the sea. The southern coast is noted for its scenic peninsulas. About 3,000 islands, most of which are small and uninhabited, lie off the western and southern coasts.
C Climate
South Korea has a temperate climate, with four distinct seasons. Winters are cold and windy, and snow falls in all but the southernmost regions. Summers are hot, humid, and rainy. The weather in South Korea is affected by the Asian continent and the surrounding seas. The Asian monsoon (large-scale wind systems that reverse direction seasonally) brings frigid air from the Arctic in winter and warm, moisture-laden air from the South China Sea in summer.
In Seoul the average January temperature range is -7° to 1°C (19° to 33°F), and the average July temperature range is 22° to 29°C (71° to 83°F). Winter temperatures are higher along the southern coast and considerably lower in the mountainous interior.
The average annual precipitation in Seoul is 1,370 mm (54 in), and in Busan it is 1,470 mm (58 in). Rainfall is concentrated in the summer months (June to September). The southern coast is subject to late summer typhoons that bring strong winds and heavy rains.
D Plants and Animals
Mixed deciduous and coniferous forests cover about three-quarters of the land. Most of the country’s old-growth forests were cleared over many centuries for use as firewood and building materials, but they have rebounded since the 1970s as the result of intensive reforestation efforts. The country’s few remaining old-growth forests are protected in nature reserves.
Protected areas make up about 4 percent of South Korea and include more than a dozen national parks. One of the world’s most interesting wildlife sanctuaries has developed in the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), a border zone that has separated South Korea and North Korea since 1953. The uninhabited zone, about 4 km (about 2.5 mi) wide for most of its length, has become a haven for many kinds of wildlife, particularly migrating birds.
Principal species of trees in South Korea include pine, fir, acacia, maple, elm, poplar, and aspen. Bamboo, laurel, and evergreen oak are found in the mild southern coastal areas. Fruit trees include apple, pear, and persimmon. Woody, evergreen shrubs such as azaleas and rhododendrons are found throughout the peninsula. Another shrub, rose of Sharon, is a hardy species of hibiscus that blooms continually from July through October. It is the national flower of South Korea, where it is known as mugunghwa (Korean for “eternal flower”).
Large mammals such as tigers, bears, and lynx were once abundant throughout the Korea Peninsula but have virtually disappeared due to human settlement, loss of forest habitat, and overhunting. The Siberian tiger has not been sighted in the wild in South Korea since the 1920s; the Asiatic black bear can still be found in some remote mountain areas. Several species of deer are indigenous to the peninsula, including the roe deer, water deer, and Siberian musk deer. The musk deer, which has been overhunted for its musk glands, is legally protected as a threatened species. Smaller mammals indigenous to the peninsula include the wild boar, red fox, badger, rabbit, squirrel, and chipmunk.
Many species of birds inhabit South Korea. The crested lark and several types of woodpecker are found only on the Korea Peninsula. The black-billed magpie is the national bird and commonly sighted. Other common birds include the jay, sparrow, robin, cuckoo, dove, pheasant, snowy egret, sea hawk, and seagull. The country is located on the migratory routes of birds such as geese, ducks, and swans that summer in northern China and Siberia and winter in warm southern climates. Most of these birds stop in South Korea on their way to or from more southern destinations, but the red-crowned crane (also known as the Siberian crane) winters in South Korea’s rice-paddy fields and grassy tidal flats from November or December through March. (Some of these birds also winter in China.) The crane is classified as endangered and is strictly protected.
E Mineral Resources
In contrast to North Korea, South Korea is relatively poor in mineral resources. The principal resources are coal (mostly anthracite), iron ore, and graphite. Other minerals include zinc, tungsten, lead, copper, gold, silver, and molybdenum. Limestone is abundant.
F Environmental Issues
South Korea’s rapid industrialization during the second half of the 20th century dramatically increased pollution levels in the country. Heavy industries became the primary contributors to air and water pollution. Industrial development entailed massive land-reclamation projects, drainage of wetlands, and damming of rivers. Population densities increased rapidly in cities where industries were located, creating urban congestion and demand for additional development. All of these factors put enormous pressures on the natural environment.
In South Korea, as in many other newly industrialized nations, environmental regulations and monitoring lagged behind the pace of development. A grassroots environmental movement emerged in South Korea in the 1980s to respond to growing public concern over health issues related to industrial pollution. In the 1990s the government became more responsive to public health concerns and began to enforce higher environmental standards.
The country’s waterways became highly polluted in the 1970s from industrial effluents, untreated sewage, and widespread soil erosion. Deforested mountainsides eroded at an alarming rate, silting rivers and streams. The health of many waterways improved dramatically by the mid-1990s, mainly due to the construction of modern sewage-treatment plants and an intensive reforestation effort. The Han River, which flows through Seoul, was once extremely polluted but is now a symbol of successful environmental cleanup and a popular recreational site.
In the 1990s automobiles outpaced industrial complexes as the principle source of urban air pollution. Smog, a mixture of airborne pollutants and fog, is a chronic problem in Seoul and other large cities. To help improve air quality in urban areas, the government has promoted the replacement of diesel-fueled buses with those that burn natural gas.
At the regional level, South Korea faces issues arising from environmental degradation throughout East Asia. South Korea and many of its regional neighbors suffer from acid rain, a type of air pollution that can occur hundreds of miles away from its source. The impact of increasing desertification and industrialization in China is of growing concern in South Korea. In recent years, huge dust storms from China’s expanding Gobi and Takla Makan deserts blew through China’s rapidly industrializing cities, mixing with toxic pollutants, and into South Korea, causing severe air-quality problems.
South Korea has ratified international treaties protecting biodiversity, endangered species, wetlands, and the ozone layer. The country has also signed treaties limiting hazardous waste and marine pollution.
III PEOPLE OF SOUTH KOREA
The population of South Korea is 49,232,844 (2008 estimate). The country’s population density of 501 persons per sq km (1,299 per sq mi) is one of the highest in the world. The majority of the population lives in the southern and western parts of the country.
The annual rate of population increase in South Korea has dropped steadily from more than 3 percent in the late 1950s to 0.37 percent in 2008. Urbanization of the country has proceeded rapidly since the 1960s, with substantial migration from rural to urban areas; 81 percent of the population is now classified as urban.
Following the official division of the Korea Peninsula in 1948, about 4 million people from North Korea crossed the border to South Korea. This sudden population increase was partly offset over the next 40 years by emigration from South Korea, especially to Japan and the United States. However, South Korea’s burgeoning economy and improved political climate in the early and mid-1990s slowed the high emigration rates typical of the late 1980s. Many of those who emigrated chose to return to South Korea.
A Principal Cities
The country’s largest city, national capital, and chief industrial center is Seoul, located in the northwest. Other major cities include Busan, the country’s principal seaport, in the southeast; Daegu, the principal commercial and manufacturing center of the south; Incheon, the major port on the Yellow Sea, near Seoul; Gwangju, the principal transportation and commercial center of the southwest; and Daejeon, a transportation hub for the west-central agricultural area and a center of science and technology. Also significant is the southeastern city of Gyeongju, which was the capital of the Silla kingdom that established unified rule of the Korea Peninsula in ad 668.
B Ethnic Groups
South Korea, like North Korea, is one of the most ethnically homogeneous countries in the world. Almost all of its people are ethnically Korean. Koreans are the descendants of Neolithic people who began to migrate to the Korea Peninsula from the northeastern Asia mainland, including the Siberian region, as early as 5000 bc. These people replaced earlier Paleolithic cultures that had inhabited some areas of the peninsula for about 40,000 years. See also Stone Age.
People of Chinese descent make up the country’s largest minority group. The resident population also includes a growing number of foreign nationals, which include migrant laborers from South and Southeast Asia, as well as business people, diplomats, and other professionals from many parts of the world.
C Language
South Korea’s national language is Korean, a distinct language that linguists have not firmly categorized in any language grouping, although it is most often included in the Altaic language family. Of all languages, Korean is most similar in grammar to Japanese. Because of a long history of contacts with China, the Korean vocabulary contains many Chinese words. Korean is written in a unique phonetic script known as Hangeul (called Chosŏn'gŭl in North Korea), which was introduced in 1446 under King Sejong of the Chosŏn dynasty (1392-1910).
The Korean language did not have its own alphabet before the invention of Hangeul. Until then, the Korean language was written in a modified Chinese script. The Chinese ideographs, or characters, represent words and meanings rather than pronunciation. Because they were developed for a completely different language, they did not reflect the sounds and grammar of Korean. For this reason, King Sejong commissioned a group of scholars to invent Hangeul, a script composed of phonetic symbols that accurately represent spoken Korean.
Although sophisticated, Hangeul is easily learned, as King Sejong had intended in order to increase literacy among all classes in Korea. Chinese characters remained the more prestigious, and preferred, script of the educated elite until the 20th century, when Hangeul was widely adopted in South Korea as a symbol of national identity. Today, written Korean often combines Hangeul symbols with some Chinese characters.
D Religion
Buddhism and Christianity are the largest religions in South Korea. However, many South Koreans do not adhere to any one religion and in practice often combine different belief systems in their lives. As a result, religious distinctions are often blurred.
Confucianism, more a moral philosophy than a religion, is in many ways more prominent in Korean culture than any organized religion. Confucianism was introduced from China as much as 2,000 years ago. Many of its teachings are an integral thread in the social and moral fabric of South Korea. Confucianism is evident in practices such as giving priority to education and respect to elders, as well as the performance of memorial ceremonies for ancestors.
The Mahayana form of Buddhism was introduced from India by way of China in the 4th century. Successive Korean kingdoms recognized Buddhism as the official religion from the early 500s until 1392, when the Chosŏn dynasty began to promote Neo-Confucianism as the state ideology and discourage the practice of Buddhism. Today Buddhism is prevalent throughout South Korea, and there are many Buddhist monasteries and temples. Sŏn Buddhism, which emphasizes meditation, originated in China as Chan Buddhism and was eventually transferred from Korea to Japan, where it became known as Zen Buddhism.
Daoism (Taoism), known in Korean as To-gyo (the Way), is a mystical philosophy also introduced from China about the same time as Buddhism. Many of its principles emphasizing harmony with nature, simplicity, purity, and longevity are evident in Korean culture.
Korea was officially closed to Christian missionaries until 1882, although knowledge of Christianity was evident well before then. Membership in various Christian denominations has grown considerably since the 1950s, and today South Korea is the most Christianized country in East Asia. About three-quarters of South Korea’s Christians are Protestant, while most of the remainder are Roman Catholic.
Hundreds of so-called new religions have been founded in South Korea. Most of these new religions are syncretic, meaning they blend different belief systems. One of the most prominent is the Unification Church, founded in 1954 by Sun Myung Moon. The oldest of the new religions is Ch’ŏndogyo (Teaching of the Heavenly Way), founded in 1860. It fuses elements of Confucianism, Buddhism, Daoism, Christianity, and shamanism.
Korean shamanism has its roots in the ancient cultures of northeastern Asia. It is the indigenous belief system and is recognized in South Korea as an important aspect of cultural heritage. Based in animistic beliefs, shamanism emphasizes the performance of healing and divination ceremonies (kut) by shamans (spiritual mediums) called mudang, most of whom are women. Although shamanism is not an organized religion, many South Koreans consult shamans when experiencing illness or other difficulties. In addition, shamanism’s precept that every natural object has a soul is a widely held belief in South Korea.
E Education
South Korea has a high literacy rate, as 98 percent of the adult population can read and write. Primary education is free and compulsory for all children between the ages of 6 and 14. Secondary education consists of three years of middle school and three years of high school. In the 2000 school year some 4 million pupils were enrolled annually in kindergarten and elementary schools and 4 million in middle and high schools, including vocational high schools. Private schools play an important role, especially above the primary level.
There are more than 300 institutions of higher education in the country, with a total annual enrollment of 3.2 million students. The principal universities are Korea University (founded in 1905), Seoul National University (1946), Ewha Women’s University (1886), and Yonsei University (1885), all in Seoul. Major universities, both private and public, are also located in provincial capitals.
IV CULTURE OF SOUTH KOREA
Historically, Korea was strongly influenced by Chinese culture and acted as a conduit of culture from China to Japan. Koreans adapted many Chinese art forms with innovation and skill, creating distinctively Korean forms. For many centuries, metalwork, sculpture, painting, and ceramics flourished throughout the Korea Peninsula. Buddhism provided one of the most significant sources for artistic expression. Confucianism, also prominent, emphasized the importance of literature and calligraphy, as well as portrait and landscape painting.
Koreans began to incorporate Western forms after Korea opened itself to the Western world in the late 1800s. During the period of Japanese colonial rule (1910-1945), indigenous traditions were strongly discouraged. Since then, however, Koreans have made a concerted effort to keep their cultural traditions alive. Koreans possess a deep appreciation for their cultural heritage. The government encourages the traditional arts, as well as modern forms, through funding and education programs as well as sponsorship of a national competitive exhibition each year.
Korean cultural development is generally divided into periods coinciding with political development: the Three Kingdoms period (57 bc-ad 668), the Unified Silla period (668-935), the Koryŏ (Goryeo) period (918-1392), the Chosŏn (Joseon) period (1392-1910), and the modern period (1910-present). For an overview of these political periods, see Korea.
A Literature
Korean literature can be classified chronologically into classical and modern periods. Korean classical literature combined indigenous folk traditions with the religious and philosophical principles of Buddhism, Confucianism, and Daoism. A male-dominated educated elite developed the classical body of literature from earliest times to the end of the Chosŏn dynasty in 1910. They wrote in the Chinese script. The Korean script, Hangeul, was introduced in 1446 but did not gain widespread acceptance as a literary language until the 20th century. The accessibility of Hangeul to all classes expanded the social base of Korean literature during the modern period.
A1 Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
The earliest surviving examples of literature appearing in Korean sources are the hyangga (native songs), which arose out of an ancient oral literary tradition and have both religious and folk overtones. Only 25 hyangga, some originally composed as early as the 6th century, are known to survive; 14 are preserved in an early historical text, Samguk-yusa (Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, 1285).
Buddhism became the dominant system of thought during the Unified Silla period and exercised great influence over literature and art. At the same time, the rise of Confucianism stimulated the use of Chinese as a literary language and promoted study of the Chinese classics. Hanshi—poetry composed in classical Chinese and following Chinese principles of poetry, but written by Koreans—became widespread among the literary elite of the Unified Silla.
A2 Koryŏ and Chosŏn
Buddhism remained a major influence in the literary development of the Koryŏ period. In 1236 King Kojong of the Koryŏ dynasty ordered Buddhist monks to record the entire Mahayana Buddhist canon (a collection of sutras, treatises, and commentaries known as the Tripitaka) to provide divine protection against Mongol invasions from the north (see Mongol Empire). Utilizing traditional block-printing methods, monks carved the text in the Chinese script in relief on more than 81,000 wood blocks, totaling 6,791 volumes. Today the original collection, considered to be the most complete rendering of the Mahayana Tripitaka in the world, is preserved at the Haeinsa Buddhist temple in southern South Korea, and the wood blocks continue to be used for printing the sacred texts.
Literature assumed increasing importance during the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods, when educated civil servants called yangban replaced the hereditary ruling elite. In the tradition of Confucianism, the yangban were selected by a national examination that required mastery of literature, among other subjects. Their works constitute the majority of recorded Korean literature from the Koryŏ and Chosŏn periods.
The sijo, a lyrical poem with simple yet sophisticated three-stanza construction, emerged in the early 13th century, during the Koryŏ period, and subsequently flourished in the Chosŏn period. Early sijo expressed Confucian ideals using themes from nature, while later examples incorporated elements of satire and humor. Renowned sijo poets include Hwang Chin-i, an educated courtesan of the 16th century who is considered the foremost female Korean poet, and Yun Sŏn-do, a master of the form who lived from 1587 to 1671. The writing of sijo has endured into the 21st century and, much like Japanese haiku, has gained international popularity.
A3 Modern Period
In the modern period, dating from the early 20th century, Korean writers adapted many different Western literary influences—notably realism, existentialism, and surrealism—in their efforts to express a series of difficult national experiences: Japanese colonial rule, the partition of Korea and ensuing Korean War, and a period of authoritarian rule. One of the most important achievements of modern Korean literature is the 16-volume epic novel T’oji (The Land), written by Park Kyŏng-ni over a period of 25 years (1969 to 1994). The work presents a vivid panorama of Korea from the late 19th century to the mid-20th century.
B Art
Contemporary Korean artists employ both traditional and Western forms in their works. Traditional handicrafts such as lacquerwork (often inlaid with mother-of-pearl), embroidery, and ceramics are produced for artistic and commercial purposes. Modern Korean art draws on a long history of cultural development and artistic achievement.
B1 Three Kingdoms and Unified Silla
Korean art was produced primarily for religious purposes during the Three Kingdoms period (57 bc to ad 668). Gilt bronze statues depicting the Buddha and other deities demonstrated Korean skill in metallurgy. Royal burial tombs contained ornately crafted gold crowns, jewelry, and other ornaments with crescent-shaped jade pendants. The design of these pieces suggests that ancient shamanistic influences remained strong in Korean culture after the introduction of Buddhism in the 4th century.
Koreans produced a rich variety of metal, stone, and ceramic works during the Unified Silla period, which ended in 935. A bronze bell made in 771 for King Sŏngdŏk of the Silla dynasty ranks as one of Asia’s largest cast-bronze bells. Temple building proliferated, most notably in the area of the Silla capital, Gyeongju. The Sŏkkuram cave temple, built high on a mountain ridge near Gyeongju in the 8th century, contains a remarkable example of a seated Buddha carved from granite.
B2 Koryŏ
Artisans of the Unified Silla period attained the technology for highly refined, glazed stoneware. This development laid the foundation for the ceramics of the following Koryŏ period, when artisans achieved an unsurpassed level of skill in the green-glaze stoneware called celadon.
B3 Chosŏn
The art of the Chŏson period is noted for the development of landscape painting, exemplified in the works of Chŏng Sŏn, notably The Diamond Mountains. Paintings also documented important historical events, such as battles and foreign diplomatic visits. Calligraphy in Chinese characters, practiced since the Three Kingdoms period, gained importance. Calligraphy and painting flourished among the educated elite until the early 16th century. During the Chosŏn period, the Neo-Confucian state ideology discouraged the practice of Buddhism, which had long been a source of artistic inspiration. Many art forms, including ceramics, became more utilitarian, with few embellishments. In the early 20th century, Western influences infused Korean art with new concepts and methods.
C Architecture
Korean architecture incorporates Eastern philosophical principles that emphasize harmony with nature and the universe. It is believed that architecture based in these principles can foster social and political harmony as well. Temple architecture followed forms introduced from China. One of South Korea’s renowned Buddhist temples, Pulguksa, was built in the 8th century under the royal patronage of the Silla kingdom, which formally adopted Buddhism in the 6th century.
The three surviving royal palaces in South Korea date from the Chosŏn period and are located in Seoul, the capital of the Chosŏn dynasty. Changdeok Palace, originally constructed in 1405, is the best-preserved palace and a World Heritage Site. Korean palaces largely followed Chinese models. They were built of wood, with stone foundations and tile-covered rooftops that extended beyond the main structure to form broad eaves. The undersides of the eaves were colorfully painted in intricate designs.
During the period of Japanese colonial rule from 1910 to 1945, many historic sites and artifacts were destroyed or confiscated. Western influences became more predominant. Since the Korean War (1950-1953), which also damaged historic sites, many monuments have been reconstructed, and priority is given to their continued preservation.
See also Korean Art and Architecture.
D Music and Dance
D1 Traditional Forms
South Korea has a rich oral tradition consisting of lyric folk songs, shaman chants, myths, legends, and folktales. Korean folk songs are diverse and numerous. They include ceremonial and work songs as well as popular songs about everyday life. “Arirang,” one of South Korea’s best-known folk songs, has numerous variations.
Lyrical or narrative, folk songs are accompanied by lively and emotive music played by percussion instruments such as drums, cymbals, and gongs; and the oboe (a double-reed wind instrument). One type of traditional song, the p’ansori, is a lengthy narrative that runs through several episodes and can continue for several hours. Accompanied by the beat of an hourglass drum, p’ansori is both spoken and sung.
Ritual shaman music accompanies chants that are intended to induce a trance state in the shaman (mudang), a religious figure who is thought to commune with spirits. The mudang ritual performances rely heavily on dance and music, as well as colorful costumes and other props.
Formal types of music and dance were first performed for the royal court of the Silla kingdom, and succeeding dynasties continued this tradition. Today various troupes perform court music and dance. Types of songs include the kagok, a long lyrical song, the kasa, a slow narrative song, and the sijo, a musical rendition of Korean sijo poems.
Sandae-guk (mountain performance) is an improvised masked drama that features complex dances drawn from shamanism and songs based on folk music. Originally developed for the royal court, the form lost favor with the Chosŏn rulers in 1634. Thereafter it gained great popularity in rural areas, employing satire and bawdy humor to criticize the ruling class. See also Asian Theater.
D2 Western Forms
Western schools of music and dance are a more recent tradition in South Korea. The National Dance Company, founded in 1962, embraced modern dance and classical ballet genres. In 1973 the National Ballet Company was formed out of the National Dance Company, which then focused solely on modern dance. A private ballet company, Universal Ballet, was established in 1984. European modern ballet and American ballet styles, such as the neoclassicism of George Balanchine, became influential in the late 1980s. Modern dance has followed Western styles, including the highly expressive style of Martha Graham, introduced in South Korea in the 1960s, and a playful and satirical French style introduced in the 1980s. The Changmu Dance Company has pioneered experimental dance forms.
E Cultural Institutions
The Seoul Arts Center is the national performing arts center and houses five resident companies: the National Opera, the National Ballet, the National Chorus, the Seoul Performing Arts Company, and the Korean Symphony Orchestra. The center features five state-of-the-art facilities: the Music Hall and Calligraphy Hall (both opened in 1988), the Art Gallery and Arts Library (1990), and the Opera House (1993).
Several museums are located in Seoul. The National Museum, founded in Seoul in 1945, has an extensive collection of Korean archaeological, cultural, and folklore artifacts. Branches of the museum are located in eight other major cities. Seoul is also home to the National Museum of Modern Art, the National Folklore Museum, and the War Memorial Museum.
The National Library of Korea, headquartered in Seoul with branches throughout the country, houses a collection of more than 4 million volumes. The libraries of Seoul National University and Yonsei University each contain more than 1 million volumes, including important Korean archives.
V ECONOMY OF SOUTH KOREA
South Korea’s economy was traditionally based on agriculture but experienced extraordinarily rapid industrialization beginning in the early 1960s. After the Korean War (1950-1953), economic aid, especially from the United States, was important to the economic recovery of the country. Subsequently, the government of South Korea gave priority to the development of manufacturing, which was driven by export-led growth. In the span of a generation, South Korea grew from one of the world’s poorest countries to one of its most promising industrial powers.
Since the late 1980s, the government has allowed market forces to determine economic development. Previously, the government had exerted strong influence through a series of five-year economic plans, which had promoted industrialization. To achieve the goals of these plans, the government directly intervened in the economy by offering strong incentives to businesses, regulating foreign exchange, and implementing highly centralized fiscal policies.
South Korea’s gross domestic product (GDP) expanded by more than 9 percent yearly between the mid-1960s and the mid-1990s. By the mid-1990s economists referred to South Korea, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taiwan as Asia’s “Four Tigers” because they rapidly achieved high economic growth and a standard of living among the highest in the world. Nevertheless, South Korea was one of many Asian countries that suffered economic decline during a regional economic crisis in 1997 and 1998. During the crisis, several of South Korea’s largest conglomerates, called chaebol, went bankrupt and collapsed.
The economic crisis highlighted underlying structural weaknesses in South Korea’s economy. Close links between government, banks, and chaebol had allowed the conglomerates to borrow heavily from domestic financial institutions to help them finance high-risk investments. In consequence, the chaebol accrued extremely high levels of debt. The collapse of chaebol, which created a high incidence of nonperforming loans, caused havoc in the banking sector. Meanwhile, the value of the national currency plummeted, losing more than half its value by the end of 1997, and inflation and unemployment soared.
In December 1997 South Korea accepted one of the largest aid packages ever arranged with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The terms of the aid package required South Korea to pursue economic reform, including restructuring of the corporate and financial sectors. The South Korean government transferred government-owned assets to the private sector, opened the domestic market to more foreign competition, and required chaebol to lower their debt-to-equity ratios. The country’s economy recovered in 1999 and sustained growth into the early 2000s. In addition, South Korea repaid all its IMF emergency loans by mid-2001.
In 2005 South Korea’s annual budget figures showed revenues of $168.4 billion and expenditures of $184.1 billion. The GDP in 2006 stood at $888 billion.
A Labor
In 2006 the total labor force was 25 million. Of this figure, some 8 percent were engaged in agriculture, forestry, and fishing; 27 percent in industry; and 65 percent in services. Women make up 41 percent of the labor force. The principal labor organization is the Federation of Korean Trade Unions, with a membership of about 1.5 million.
B Agriculture
Land distribution programs were carried out in South Korea in the late 1940s, creating an agricultural system composed primarily of small, owner-operated farms. The rapid industrialization of South Korea and increasing urbanization has diminished the importance of farming to the country’s economy, and the number of families dependent on agriculture for their livelihood steadily declined beginning in the 1970s.
About 17 percent of the land in South Korea is under cultivation. More than half of the agricultural land is devoted to rice, the principal food crop. Other leading crops include soybeans, red peppers, barley, cabbages, watermelons, garlic, onions, radishes, white potatoes, red beans, corn, and sweet potatoes. Many types of fruit are grown, especially apples, oranges, grapes, persimmons, pears, and peaches. Other crops include cotton, hemp, and silk. Livestock include pigs, cattle, and goats.
C Forestry and Fishing
Since the late 1960s South Korea has become one of the world’s leading fishing nations, with a modern fleet operating in distant waters. Other vessels fish in nearby coastal waters. The ports of Ulsan and Masan have been developed as deep-sea fishing bases with fish-processing plants. The catch in 2005 was 2.7 million metric tons. Squid, mollusks, anchovies, tuna, walleye pollock, and mackerel make up the principal catches.
South Korea imports the majority of its lumber, but reforestation has provided some tree plantations for commercial use. The country’s timber harvest in 2006 yielded 4.9 million cubic meters (173 million cubic feet) of lumber.
D Mining
South Korea has limited mineral resources. The output of anthracite coal, the country’s leading mineral resource, was 3.3 million metric tons in 2003. Zinc ore output was 6,000 metric tons. Small amounts of graphite, iron ore, lead, tungsten, gold, silver, and kaolin (a fine clay) are extracted. Limestone mining is significant, with much of the yield used in the production of cement, the principal material used in new construction.
E Manufacturing
The division of the Korea Peninsula in 1948 created two unbalanced economic units. North Korea held most of the natural resources and heavy industries developed during occupation by the Japanese; South Korea contained most of the agricultural resources and a large labor pool. Industrial development in the south concentrated initially on light manufacturing of export-oriented items, especially in labor-intensive industries such as textiles and apparel, footwear, and foodstuffs. Beginning in the early 1970s, however, emphasis was placed on heavy industry. In the 1980s and 1990s Korean manufacturers branched into high-technology industries, such as computer components and semiconductors. Manufacturing is dominated by chaebol, large conglomerate companies with greatly diversified interests.
South Korea is an important producer of telecommunications and sound equipment and transportation equipment. Shipbuilding is a major industry. Other leading industries include the manufacture of chemicals, machinery, food products and beverages, basic metals, and textiles.
F Energy
Thermal facilities that primarily burn imported petroleum generated 61 percent of South Korea’s electric power in 2003. In the 1970s the country began to build nuclear power plants in an effort to lessen its dependence on imported oil, and in 2003 nuclear plants generated 38 percent of the country’s electricity. Another 1 percent came from hydroelectric installations. Annual output of electricity was 326 billion kilowatt-hours.
G Transportation
A well-developed highway system connects the major urban centers of South Korea. The country has about 100,279 km (about 62,310 mi) of main roads. The state-owned railroad system consists of 3,392 km (2,108 mi) of lines, with construction under way on a high-speed line connecting Seoul and Busan. In May 2007 passenger rail links between North and South Korea were established in a one-time trial. Although largely symbolic, many South Koreans regarded the brief resumption of passenger train traffic between the two countries as a landmark event. The country’s chief ports include Busan, Incheon, Mokpo, and Gunsan. Its merchant fleet numbers 2,946 vessels.
Korean Air Lines and Asiana Airlines provide domestic and foreign service. Incheon International Airport, which opened in April 2001, is the hub for international flights. Located 52 km (32 mi) west of downtown Seoul, the airport covers 5,600 hectares (13,800 acres) on reclaimed tidal lands between two offshore islands.
H Communications
Mass media have assumed large importance in South Korea. Freedom of the press has been constitutionally guaranteed since 1987, when a democratic system of government was instituted. This resulted in the reemergence of newspapers that had been banned under the preceding military regime, as well as the establishment of many new newspapers. South Korea has 139 daily newspapers, some with national circulation. In 2000 there were 364 televisions and 1,039 radios for every 1,000 people in South Korea. In 2005 there were 794 cellular telephone subscribers per 1,000 people.
I Currency and Banking
The unit of currency in South Korea is the won (955 won equal U.S.$1; 2006 average). The Bank of Korea is the bank of issue.
J Foreign Trade
Following the disruption of trade during the Korean War and its aftermath, exports increased at the remarkable annual rate of 27 percent from 1965 to 1980 and increased sixfold from 1980 to 1995. The country, with few natural resources and a relatively small domestic market, employed its skilled labor force to produce goods for export, thereby fueling its rapid economic growth. In 1996 South Korea became a member of the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), an international organization that works to coordinate the economic policies of industrialized nations.
Major imports (many of which are used to make goods for export) include industrial machinery, petroleum and petroleum products, electrical equipment, iron and steel, transportation equipment, and chemical products. Leading exports are electrical machinery, fabrics, road vehicles, telecommunication and sound equipment, iron and steel, metal goods, computer components, and apparel. Imports in 2004 were valued at $224.5 billion and exports were worth $253.8 billion.
VI GOVERNMENT OF SOUTH KOREA
South Korea has been governed under six constitutions, adopted in 1948, 1960, 1962, 1972, 1980, and 1988. Each constitution signifies a new South Korean republic. Thus, the government under the 1988 constitution is known as the Sixth Republic. The most recent constitution was approved by referendum in October 1987 and went into effect in February 1988.
A Executive
Executive power is vested in a president who is directly elected by popular vote to a nonrenewable five-year term. The president is responsible for deciding all important government policies. The president performs executive functions through the cabinet, called the State Council. The prime minister is the principal executive assistant to the president. The president appoints the prime minister with the approval of the legislature, or National Assembly. The president heads the State Council and appoints its members on the recommendations of the prime minister. The council must include at least 15 and no more than 30 government ministers, including the prime minister. The prime minister and the members of the State Council have the right to supervise the administrative ministries, deliberate major national policies, and voice opinions at meetings of the National Assembly.
The 1988 constitution imposes limits on the powers of the president. In times of national crisis, the president may take emergency measures such as imposing martial law, but such measures must be approved by the legislature. The president may not dissolve the legislature or suspend basic legal rights.
B Legislature
Legislative power is vested in the unicameral (single chamber) National Assembly. The assembly’s members are elected by a dual-ballot system in which voters cast two votes: one for a specific candidate and one for a party under proportional representation. This system was introduced in the 2004 legislative elections to allow for a more accurate reflection of party preferences. Under proportional representation, members are selected from party lists in proportion to the overall vote. All members serve four-year terms.
C Judiciary
The highest court in South Korea is the Supreme Court, consisting of 14 justices (including the chief justice). Below the Supreme Court are five appellate courts, located in Gwangju, Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, and Seoul. District courts, which are located in the major cities, have jurisdiction over civil and criminal cases of the first instance. South Korea also provides for a Constitutional Court, which passes judgment on the constitutionality of laws (when requested to do so by the courts), impeachment matters, and the dissolution of political parties.
D Local Government
For purposes of local administration, South Korea is divided into nine provinces and seven cities with provincial status. The nine provinces are Gyeonngi Province, Gangwon Province, North Chungcheong Province, South Chungcheong Province, North Gyeongsang Province, South Gyeongsang Province, North Jeolla Province, South Jeolla Province, and Jeju Province. The seven provincial cities are Incheon, Gwangju, Busan, Daegu, Daejeon, Seoul, and Ulsan. The governors of the provinces and mayors of the seven provincial cities are elected by the people every four years.
E Political Parties
The main political parties in South Korea are the liberal Uri (Our Open) Party, the conservative Grand National Party (GNP), the centrist Millennium Democratic Party (MDP), and the left-wing Democratic Labor Party (DLP).
F Social Services
In 2004 South Korea had 554 people for every physician. The government sponsors many social services, including some medical insurance programs and welfare and retirement plans.
G Defense
The president is commander in chief of the armed forces. In 2004 total active military forces stood at 687,700. Membership was as follows: army, 560,000; navy, 63,000; and air force, 64,700. Reserve forces total 4.5 million. Thousands of U.S. troops are also stationed in the country.
VII HISTORY OF SOUTH KOREA
At the end of World War II in 1945, the Korea Peninsula was liberated from Japanese colonial rule, which had been in place since 1910. To fill the power vacuum, Soviet forces occupied the northern portion of the Korea Peninsula, and United States forces occupied the southern portion. This political division was considered only temporary, but subsequent reunification efforts failed. In 1948 the division became official when the Republic of Korea, backed by the United States and the United Nations (UN), was established south of the 38th parallel, and the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, backed by the Soviet Union and China, was established north of the same latitude. For the history of the Korea Peninsula before 1948, see Korea.
The Republic of Korea, commonly known as South Korea, was proclaimed on August 15, 1948. Its first president, Syngman Rhee, was elected by a legislature that had been popularly elected in May 1948. The legislative elections were sponsored and supervised by UN representatives. Left-wing groups had boycotted these elections, and virtually all the legislators were firm anti-Communists, as was their chosen president.
A Unstable Beginnings
The main objective of the first South Korean government was the suppression of leftist groups, some of them independent but many supported by the Communist government of North Korea. The United States, concerned about leftist guerrilla activity and the potential of invasion from North Korea, delayed withdrawing its occupation forces in South Korea until June 1949.
However, the security situation remained extremely tenuous in the Korea Peninsula. The North Korean leader, Kim Il Sung, sought to unify the Korea Peninsula under Communist rule. In June 1950 he launched a full-scale military invasion of South Korea, thereby starting the Korean War. The United States immediately gained UN Security Council support for the defense of South Korea and committed American ground troops to the war. The Korean War was ultimately one of the most destructive and deadly wars of the 20th century. Perhaps as many as 4 million Koreans died throughout the peninsula, the majority of them civilians.
During the war, South Korean president Rhee governed under martial law, and he used his power to force the legislature to adopt a constitutional amendment providing for popular election of the president. Rhee was popularly elected to a second term in 1952.
In July 1953 an armistice agreement signed by the UN, North Korea, and China—South Korea refused to sign—ended the fighting of the Korean War. Without a formal peace treaty, however, North Korea and South Korea technically remained at war. Their shared border, known as the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ), remained heavily fortified and guarded on both sides. With the consent of South Korea, the United States continued to maintain a military presence in the country.
South Korea made a slow recovery from the war. Rhee was unable to produce any significant economic development despite much aid from the United States. He easily won reelection in 1956 and 1960, but blatant manipulation of the 1960 elections led to nationwide protests that culminated in Rhee’s forced resignation on April 27, 1960. The moderate government of John M. Chang that followed Rhee’s departure implemented liberalizing reforms in many areas, but economic development still lagged. Military leaders, fearing growing instability and wary of student agitation for talks with North Korea, staged a coup on May 16, 1961.
B Military Rule under Park Chung Hee
The ruling military junta, led by Park Chung Hee, dissolved the parliament, governed by decree, and banned all political activity until October 1963, when Park was narrowly elected president. As president, Park launched economic reforms designed to industrialize South Korea. Despite widespread public opposition, Park signed a treaty with Japan in 1965, dropping Korean demands for war reparations in return for economic aid. Japanese capital soon began to flow into Korea. The country also earned foreign exchange by sending troops and contract workers to aid the United States during the Vietnam War (1959-1975). This led to a dramatic spurt of industrialization and export-oriented growth.
Little was left to chance in Park’s government. Politics were dominated by his Democratic Republican Party (DRP), which by its control of funds and patronage easily overwhelmed all opposition groups. In addition, the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (KCIA), responsible for intelligence and anti-North operations, carried out surveillance and intimidation of political dissidents.
In the presidential election of 1971, Park narrowly defeated the opposition candidate, Kim Dae Jung of the New Democratic Party (NDP). Park and his ruling DRP quickly moved to consolidate power before the 1973 legislative elections. In October 1972 Park’s government declared martial law, dissolved the legislature, and suspended the 1962 constitution. The following month, the government introduced a new constitution, known as the Yushin (Revitalizing Reform) constitution, which greatly expanded presidential powers and allowed Park to remain in office indefinitely.
The political opposition immediately began agitating for constitutional reforms. However, Park issued numerous emergency measures that banned activities of the political opposition. The Presidential Emergency Measure for Safeguarding National Security, issued in 1975, banned student demonstrations. Many political dissidents who agitated for constitutional reform were arrested and jailed. Even as civil rights were suppressed or violated, rapid industrialization of the country achieved spectacular economic growth. South Korea’s exports flooded Western markets, and the country ceased its dependence on foreign aid.
C Regime of Chun Doo Hwan
In October 1979 military forces violently suppressed an antigovernment uprising in the southern cities of Busan and Masan. Later that month, President Park was assassinated by Kim Jae Kyu, the director of the Korean Central Intelligence Agency (now known as the National Intelligence Service). Premier Choi Kyu Hah became acting president, and the government proclaimed martial law. In December army general Chun Doo Hwan staged a coup within the armed forces, seizing control as martial law commander. Chun emerged as the dominant leader in the country, overshadowing President Choi.
Demonstrations erupted in many cities demanding an end to martial law and the adoption of a new constitution. In May 1980 Chun arrested leaders of the political opposition and banned all political activity. Despite these restrictions, political dissidents staged a pro-democracy protest that developed into a massive uprising in the city of Gwangju in mid-May. During the ensuing military crackdown, army troops killed at least two hundred civilian protesters.
In August 1980 President Choi suddenly stepped down, and Chun secured the presidency by indirect vote. A new constitution, providing for a single seven-year presidential term but also retaining many of the Yushin-type control mechanisms, went into effect in April 1981. President Chun’s regime scored a diplomatic coup when the International Olympic Committee designated Seoul as the site for the 1988 Summer Olympic Games.
D Democratic Reforms
Following a series of mass protests in June 1987, President Chun promised democratic reforms, including direct presidential elections. Voters adopted a new, democratic constitution in a referendum in October, and Roh Tae Woo, the candidate of the ruling Democratic Justice Party (DJP) and a longtime supporter of Chun, was elected president in December. The new constitution took effect in February 1988.
In the 1988 elections to the National Assembly, the DJP won the most seats but failed to secure a majority. The Peace and Democracy Party (PDP) of Kim Dae Jung became the main opposition party. Later that year, South Korea hosted the Summer Olympics. In 1990 the DJP merged with two other parties to form the Democratic Liberal Party (DLP). This maneuver secured the new party an absolute majority in the legislature. In March 1991 the first local elections in 30 years were held. DLP candidates won a majority of posts.
Although some democratic reforms had taken hold in South Korea, distrust of government ran deep. Students and workers regularly staged protests and strikes from 1988 to 1991. The annual anniversary of the 1980 massacre in Gwangju was commemorated with mass demonstrations that resulted in clashes between protesters and police. Public unrest escalated in 1991 with the revelation of a government bribery scandal and the beating to death of a student protester by police. In response to weeks of widespread demonstrations precipitated by the fatal beating, the government relaxed the National Security Law and reined in police activity.
In the presidential elections of December 1992, South Koreans elected Kim Young Sam, a former political dissident who had merged his opposition party into the DLP in 1990. Soon after taking office, Kim launched an anticorruption reform program that included publicizing the assets of politicians, senior civil servants, and some judiciary and military members. Resignations followed from many people whose publicized wealth was clearly disproportionate to their income levels. In December 1993 the government agreed to open the heavily protected Korean rice market to imports. The resulting public outcry, which included violent demonstrations in Seoul, led to the resignation of Prime Minister Hwang In Sung and his cabinet, although the decision to allow rice imports was not reversed.
In late 1995 Kim’s anticorruption campaign resulted in the arrest of his predecessors, Chun and Roh. They were put on trial on charges they had accepted hundreds of millions of dollars in bribes from business interests while in office. Both former presidents were subsequently put on trial for their alleged roles in the 1979 military coup that brought Chun to power and the May 1980 massacre of pro-democracy demonstrators in Gwangju. In 1996 Chun and Roh were convicted of mutiny, sedition, and corruption. Chun received the death sentence (reduced to life imprisonment on appeal), while Roh received 22y years in prison (reduced to 17 years on appeal). In addition, their corruption convictions required them to pay millions of dollars in fines.
Meanwhile, Kim Young Sam denied allegations from the opposition that he had personally received money for his 1992 presidential campaign from Roh’s stash of illegal funds. In December 1995 Kim renamed the DLP the New Korea Party (NKP) in an effort to distance the party from its association with the military regimes of Chun and Roh.
In January 1996 Kim admitted in a televised address to the nation that before becoming president he had accepted political donations from business interests; however, he denied the funds were bribes for political favors. In late March 1996 Kim’s former aide of 20 years, Chang Hak Ro, was arrested on bribery charges, casting doubt on Kim’s anticorruption campaign just weeks before the April parliamentary elections. The NKP lost control of the National Assembly in the elections; shortly thereafter, however, it was able to recruit 11 independent legislators to regain its 150-seat majority.
E Economic Crisis
In 1997 the South Korean government was rocked by further scandals, this time involving fraudulent loans, which resulted in a cabinet reshuffle. An economic crisis developed in December when investors, already shaken by a regional economic crisis in Asia, lost confidence in the debt-laden South Korean economy. The currency plummeted in value, leading to a rapid depletion of South Korea’s foreign currency reserves. This in turn threatened the ability of the government, banks, and industries to repay foreign debt. Furthermore, the unemployment rate soared as unstable businesses declared bankruptcy. In November the government accepted one of the largest aid packages ever arranged with the International Monetary Fund (IMF). The agreement required South Korea to implement tough austerity measures, such as reductions in public spending, and tax and interest rate hikes.
The economic crisis led to widespread dissatisfaction with Kim Young Sam’s government. In the presidential election of December 1997, voters elected Kim Dae Jung, a longtime opposition leader and pro-democracy advocate, by a narrow margin. The vote marked the first time an opposition politician won the presidency in South Korea. He was also the first politician from the country’s southwestern region to become president. Previously, all presidents had hailed from the country’s politically dominant southeastern region. Shortly after the elections, President Kim Young Sam pardoned former presidents Chun and Roh, releasing them from prison, at the request of President-elect Kim Dae Jung. Both Kims agreed the gesture of clemency would help reconcile regional antagonisms that surfaced during the hotly contested elections, in the interest of uniting the country behind efforts to resolve the economic crisis.
To address the economic crisis, Kim’s government vigorously pursued economic restructuring, and Kim emerged as a champion of deregulation, privatization, and foreign investment in South Korea. He led the country through short-term hardships associated with the reforms, including rising inflation and unemployment. In 1999 South Korea’s economy made a strong recovery.
F Relations with North Korea
Relations between North Korea and South Korea were tense during the late 1960s and at times during the 1970s and 1980s. Both countries were admitted to the UN in September 1991. Three months later the two countries signed a nonaggression pact. However, relations between them continued to be troubled. Allegations about North Korea’s possible nuclear weapons development program strained relations in 1994. In December 1995 a U.S.-led consortium that included South Korea reached an agreement with North Korea over the suspension of its suspected nuclear weapons program. Under this agreement, South Korea agreed to help finance the replacement of two of North Korea’s nuclear reactors with modern versions designed to produce less weapons-grade plutonium.
In a further bid to open dialogue with North Korea, South Korea approved a $19.2-million investment package involving three joint-venture projects in North Korea. South Korea also extended emergency food aid, which was desperately needed in North Korea after massive summer floods destroyed many of the country’s agricultural crops.
In 1998 Kim Dae Jung encouraged economic contact with North Korea and offered unconditional economic and humanitarian aid in the hope of improving political relations. His approach, known as the Sunshine Policy, thawed relations between the two countries. In June 2000 Kim and North Korean leader Kim Jong Il held talks in P’yŏngyang, the North Korean capital, and agreed in principle to promote reconciliation and economic cooperation between the two countries. This landmark event was the first face-to-face meeting between the leaders of North Korea and South Korea since the two republics were founded in 1948.
The improved relations between the two governments led to the first authorized cross-border visits of family members separated since the Korean War, the start of mail service between the two countries, and agreement by both sides to reconnect road and rail links long severed by the Demilitarized Zone (DMZ). In the opening ceremonies of the 2000 Summer Olympic Games held in Sydney, Australia, in September, athletes from North Korea and South Korea symbolically paraded together under the neutral flag of the Korea Peninsula, although they competed separately in the games. The following month, Kim Dae Jung was awarded the 2000 Nobel Peace Prize in recognition of his efforts to bring about reconciliation with North Korea.
However, relations between the two countries subsequently became severely strained over the North’s nuclear program. North Korea renounced previous agreements due to deteriorating relations with the United States, and in 2005 the country announced that it had become a nuclear weapons state. Then North Korea tested a nuclear weapon in an underground explosion in October 2006. South Korea and other nearby nations were suddenly faced with a demonstrated nuclear threat within striking range of their populations. South Korea participated in a renewed and urgent series of six-nation talks with North Korea that also included China, Japan, Russia, and the United States. Under an agreement reached in February 2007, North Korea began taking steps toward dismantling its nuclear weapons program in return for substantial fuel and food aid. In July inspectors with the International Atomic Inspection Agency (IAEA) verified that North Korea had shut down its main nuclear reactor and all other nuclear facilities at its Yǒngbyǒn complex. Additional aid incentives were offered in exchange for North Korea to fully disclose and disable all of its nuclear facilities and programs. See also Nuclear Weapons Proliferation.
As a sign of easing tensions on the Korea Peninsula, in May 2007 North Korea and South Korea exchanged the first passenger train visits since the rebuilding of rail links across their shared border. This was followed in October with a historic summit in P’yŏngyang between Kim Jong Il and South Korean president Roh Moo Hyun—the second face-to-face meeting of Korean leaders since the Korean War. The talks resulted in a joint declaration, which outlined specific projects for building closer economic ties and stated a bilateral commitment in working toward a formal peace treaty for the Korean War. South Korea agreed to fund several capital improvement projects in North Korea to reduce the economic gap with its impoverished northern neighbor, a necessary step toward the South’s long-term goal of reunification. Among other projects, South Korea agreed to build a special economic zone in the North Korean port of Haeju, as well as a new railway and highway linking the Kaesŏng Industrial Complex to other cities. The Kaesŏng complex, which South Korea developed in the North as part of the 2000 summit agreement, had launched manufacturing operations in 2004. In November 2007 the prime ministers from both countries met for additional talks on improving bilateral ties.
G Other Developments
In 2002 South Korea and Japan cohosted the World Cup, one of the most popular international sporting events. It marked the first time the soccer tournament was held in Asia, and the first time it was jointly hosted by two countries.
Kim was constitutionally barred from seeking a second term. The candidate of the Millennium Democratic Party (MDP), Roh Moo Hyun, won the December 2002 presidential election. Roh had staked his campaign on the continuation of Kim’s so-called Sunshine Policy of diplomatic and economic engagement with North Korea. Despite the growing détente on the Korea Peninsula achieved through this policy, the situation became increasingly unstable due to tensions between the United States and North Korea over the nuclear issue.
In March 2004 Roh was impeached by a two-thirds vote in the National Assembly for allegedly violating South Korea’s electoral laws. It was the first time in South Korea’s history that a president was impeached. The electoral laws require government officials to remain neutral in election campaigns, but Roh had indicated his support for the Uri Party prior to the legislative elections scheduled for April 2004. The Grand National Party (GNP) and Millennium Democratic Party (MDP), which together controlled the legislature, initiated the vote to impeach Roh. Although Roh had been elected as the candidate of the MDP in 2002, he later split with the party. A faction of the MDP left the party and formed the Uri Party to support Roh.
Public opinion polls showed that the majority of South Koreans did not support the impeachment. In the April elections both the GNP and the MDP lost seats in the National Assembly while the Uri Party more than tripled its representation and gained a slim majority with 152 of 299 seats. It was the first time in more than 40 years that a liberal party won control of the legislature. The Constitutional Court subsequently ruled that Roh’s infraction of the electoral law was too minor to warrant impeachment and dismissed the case against him.
The presidential election held in December 2007 gave the conservative GNP candidate, Lee Myung-bak, a landslide victory. A former chief executive of Hyundai and mayor of Seoul, Lee campaigned on a promise to increase the economic growth of South Korea.
Reviewed By:
Mark Peterson
Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009. © 1993-2008 Microsoft Corporation. All rights reserved.
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